AP GOVERNMENT UNIT TWO

Minimum Qualifications (House)

25 years old, 7 years a U.S. citizen, resident of the state.

Minimum Qualifications (Senate)

30 years old, 9 years a U.S. citizen, resident of the state.

Term Length (House & Senate)

House – 2 years; Senate – 6 years.

Pork Barrel Spending

Government spending on localized projects to bring money to a representative’s district.

Logrolling

When legislators exchange votes to gain support for each other’s bills.

Oversight

Congress’s power to monitor and supervise federal agencies and programs.

Constituencies

The people politicians represent.

Apportionment

The distribution of House seats among states based on population.

Redistricting

Redrawing congressional district boundaries within a state.

Gerrymander

Manipulating district lines to favor one party.

Partisan Gerrymander

Districts drawn to benefit a political party.

Majority-Minority Districts

Districts where a racial or ethnic minority makes up the majority.

Malapportionment

Unequal representation due to unevenly populated districts.

Baker v. Carr (1961)

Established the principle of “one person, one vote”; allowed courts to review redistricting.

Gray v. Sanders (1963) & Reynolds v. Sims (1964)

Affirmed equal population in voting districts.

Racial Gerrymander

Drawing districts to dilute or concentrate racial group voting power.

Shaw v. Reno (1993)

Ruled racial gerrymandering unconstitutional

Shelby v. Holder (2013)

Struck down part of the Voting Rights Act, weakening federal oversight of voting laws.

Incumbency

The current holder of a political office.

Incumbency Advantage

Benefits sitting members have in reelection (e.g., name recognition, funding).

Speaker of the House

Presiding officer of the House; sets legislative agenda.

PACs & Super PACs

Organizations that raise/spend money to influence elections (Super PACs can raise unlimited funds).

House Majority Leader

Leader of the majority party in the House.

Whip

Party official who ensures party discipline and vote counting.

House Minority Leader

Head of the minority party in the House.

Senate Majority Leader

Most powerful person in the Senate; manages legislative process.

Committee Chairs

Lead congressional committees and guide legislation.

Congressional Staffers

Support personnel for members of Congress.

Norms of Behavior

Unwritten rules about conduct and cooperation in Congress.

Steps of the Legislative Process

Introduction → Committee → Floor → Other Chamber → Conference → President.

House Rules Committee

Sets terms of debate for House bills.

Split Ticket Voting

Voting for candidates from different parties on the same ballot.

Gridlock

Inaction due to political conflict.

Lame Duck Period

Time after a new president is elected but before the old one leaves office.

Executive Branch

Enforces laws; led by the President.

Drone Strike al-Awlaki

A controversial U.S. drone strike that killed an American citizen linked to terrorism.

Minimum Requirements for President/VP

35 years old, natural-born citizen, 14 years residency.

Federalist 70

Argues for a single, energetic executive.

Formal (Enumerated) Powers

Powers given explicitly by the Constitution (e.g., veto, appoint).

Informal Powers

Powers not listed but used (e.g., executive orders, agenda-setting).

Treaties

Agreements with other countries needing Senate approval.

Emoluments Clause

Bans foreign gifts/payments to U.S. officials.

State of the Union Address

Yearly report to Congress by the president.

Pocket Veto

President ignores a bill until Congress adjourns.

Presidential Pardon

Forgiveness of a crime by the president.

Executive Privilege

Withholding information for national security or confidentiality.

U.S. v. Nixon

Limited executive privilege; Nixon had to release tapes.

Executive Agreements

International agreements without Senate approval.

Executive Order

Presidential directive with force of law.

War Powers Resolution

Limits president’s ability to commit troops without Congressional approval.

Impeachment

Congress’s power to remove the president (House impeaches, Senate holds trial).

Executive Orders

Directives by the president that carry the weight of law.

Signing Statements

President’s interpretation added when signing a bill.

Bully Pulpit

President’s use of visibility to influence public opinion.

Going Public

Directly appealing to voters to pressure Congress.

Fireside Chats

FDR’s radio addresses to communicate directly with citizens.

Federal Judiciary

National court system including Supreme Court, appellate, and district courts.

Supreme Court

Highest U.S. court with final legal authority.

Federalist 78

Defends judicial review and life terms for judges.

Caperton v. Massey Coal

Ruled a judge should have recused themselves due to campaign donations.

District Courts

Trial-level federal courts.

Court of Appeals

Review decisions from lower courts.

Judiciary Act of 1801

Law that reorganized federal courts (later repealed).

Marbury v. Madison

Established judicial review.

Judicial Review

The power to declare laws or executive actions unconstitutional.

Dred Scott

Declared that slaves were not citizens; increased tensions before the Civil War.

Criminal Law

Laws related to crimes and punishment.

Civil Law

Laws dealing with rights, disputes, and contracts.

Stare Decisis

Following legal precedent.

Majority Opinion

The official decision of the Court.

Concurring Opinion

Agrees with the majority but for different reasons.

Dissenting Opinion

Disagrees with the majority.

Judicial Restraint

Courts should avoid making policy.

Judicial Activism

Courts should play a role in shaping policy.

Worcester v. Georgia

Ruled states couldn’t interfere with Native tribes.

Brown v. Board

Declared school segregation unconstitutional.

Life Terms

Federal judges serve for life to protect independence.

Code of Ethics

Standards for judicial conduct.

Recusal

A judge removes themselves from a case due to conflict of interest.

Judicial Impeachment

Removal of a judge for misconduct.

Bureaucrats

Non-elected government officials who implement laws.

Patronage

Giving government jobs to political supporters.

Pendleton Act

Created merit-based hiring in civil service.

Federal Civil Service

Professional branches of government employment.

Merit System

Hiring based on qualifications and exams.

Iron Triangle

Relationship between a bureaucracy, Congress, and an interest group.

Issue Network

A more fluid connection of people discussing policy.

Implementation

Bureaucracy putting laws into action.

Bureaucratic Discretion

Bureaucrats’ flexibility in how to implement policies.

Chevron v. NRDC

Gave agencies authority to interpret laws if Congress is vague.

Loper Bright v. Raimondo

(Recent case) Challenges Chevron deference.

Regulation

Rules issued by agencies to enforce laws.

Bureaucratic Adjudication

Agencies resolving disputes like a court.

Oversight

Congressional monitoring of the bureaucracy.

GAO (Government Accountability Office)

Investigates government spending.

Michigan v. EPA (2015)

Supreme Court ruled the EPA must consider cost when regulating.

(See Essential Questions)

Focuses on how each branch can influence, shape, or constrain the bureaucracy and how this affects policymaking.