📝 | Lecture Exam 1

Combines chapters 1-6

Anatomy

The study of body structures and their relationships; “cutting open”.

Physiology

The study of how organisms function.

Gross (Macroscopic) Anatomy

Study of large structures visible without magnification.

Microscopic Anatomy

Study of structures that cannot be seen without magnification (e.g., cells, tissues).

Histology

Branch of microscopic anatomy that examines tissues and their interrelationships.

Cell Theory

Principle stating that cells are the basic structural and functional units of life, all cells come from pre-existing cells, and organisms’ activities depend on cellular activities.

Chemical Level

Lowest organizational level where atoms form complex, functional molecules.

Cellular Level

Smallest living units (cells) perform functions via specialized organelles.

Tissue Level

Group of similar cells performing specialized functions.

Organ Level

Multiple tissue types collaborate to form a distinct, functional structure (e.g., heart).

Organ System Level

Organs interact for coordinated functions; humans have 11 systems.

Organism Level

Highest level; organ systems work to maintain life.

Integumentary System

External body covering; protects, regulates temperature, provides sensory information (skin, hair, nails, glands).

Skeletal System

Internal support framework; protects organs, stores minerals, forms blood cells (bones, cartilages, ligaments).

Muscular System

Produces movement, supports posture, generates heat (skeletal muscles, tendons).

Nervous System

Fast-acting control system; directs immediate responses to stimuli (brain, spinal cord, nerves, special senses).

Endocrine System

Slow, long-term control via hormones; regulates growth, metabolism, reproduction (glands such as pituitary, thyroid, adrenals).

Cardiovascular System

Transports blood, nutrients, gases, wastes; distributes heat (heart, blood, blood vessels).

Lymphatic System

Defends against infection, returns tissue fluid to bloodstream (lymph nodes, thymus, spleen, lymphatic vessels).

Respiratory System

Delivers air for gas exchange, removes CO₂, produces sound (lungs, bronchi, trachea, larynx, nasal cavities).

Digestive System

Processes food, absorbs nutrients, eliminates indigestible residue (mouth to anus plus liver, pancreas, gallbladder).

Urinary System

Eliminates wastes, regulates water, electrolyte and pH balance (kidneys, ureters, bladder, urethra).

Female Reproductive System

Produces oocytes, hormones, supports embryo and nourishes newborn (ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina, mammary glands).

Male Reproductive System

Produces sperm and hormones, delivers sperm to female (testes, epididymides, ducts, glands, penis, scrotum).

Anatomical Position

Standard reference stance: body upright, eyes forward, feet together, arms at sides with palms facing forward.

Supine

Lying down in anatomical position face-up.

Prone

Lying down in anatomical position face-down.

Anterior (Ventral)

Toward the front surface of the body.

Posterior (Dorsal)

In back of or toward the back surface of the body.

Superior (Cranial)

Toward the head or upper part of a structure.

Inferior (Caudal)

Away from the head; toward the lower part of a structure.

Proximal

Closer to the point of attachment of a limb to the trunk.

Distal

Farther from the point of attachment of a limb to the trunk.

Frontal (Coronal) Plane

Vertical plane dividing the body into anterior and posterior sections.

Sagittal Plane

Vertical plane dividing the body into right and left portions.

Midsagittal Plane

Sagittal plane that lies exactly on the midline, creating equal right and left halves.

Transverse (Horizontal) Plane

Plane perpendicular to long axis, dividing the body into superior and inferior parts; also called cross section.

Body Cavities

Internal chambers protecting organs and allowing movement.

Thoracic Cavity

Body cavity deep to the chest wall; contains pleural cavities and mediastinum.

Pleural Cavities

Paired cavities within the thoracic cavity that enclose the lungs and are lined by pleura.

Mediastinum

Central tissue mass in thorax containing connective tissue and the pericardial cavity (heart).

Pericardial Cavity

Fluid-filled space within mediastinum that surrounds the heart.

Abdominopelvic Cavity

Body cavity below the diaphragm containing abdominal and pelvic subdivisions.

Peritoneal Cavity

Serous cavity within the abdominal portion lined by peritoneum, enclosing many digestive organs.

Retroperitoneal

Position of organs located posterior to the peritoneal membrane (e.g., kidneys).

Infraperitoneal

Position of organs lying inferior to the peritoneal cavity (e.g., urinary bladder).

Abdominopelvic Quadrants

Four surface regions (RUQ, LUQ, RLQ, LLQ) used clinically to localize pain or pathology.

Abdominopelvic Regions

Nine anatomical divisions (e.g., right hypochondriac, umbilical) used for precise organ localization.

Right Hypochondriac Region

Upper-right abdominopelvic region, typically housing liver and gallbladder.

Matter

Anything with mass and volume, existing as solid, liquid, or gas.

Atom

The smallest stable unit of matter, composed of protons, neutrons, and electrons.

Element

Pure substance of one atom type.

Ion

An atom or molecule with an electrical charge due to gained/lost electrons.

Cation

Positively charged ion due to electron loss.

Anion

Negatively charged ion from electron gain.

Electrolyte

Inorganic substance whose dissolved ions conduct electricity (e.g., NaCl).

Proton

Positively charged subatomic particle located in an atom’s nucleus.

Neutron

Uncharged subatomic particle located in an atom’s nucleus.

Electron

Negatively charged subatomic particle that orbits the nucleus.

Chemical Level of Organization

The simplest level of body organization, consisting of atoms and molecules.

Molecule

A chemical structure of two or more atoms held together by covalent bonds.

Compound

A chemical substance composed of atoms of two or more different elements bonded together.

Nonpolar Molecule

Molecule in which electrons are shared equally; has no charge separation.

Polar Molecule

Molecule with unequal electron sharing, producing positive and negative poles.

Amphipathic Molecule

Compound possessing both polar (hydrophilic) and non-polar (hydrophobic) regions (e.g., phospholipids).

Acid

Solute that dissociates to release hydrogen ions (H⁺), lowering pH.

Base

Solute that removes hydrogen ions or releases hydroxide ions (OH⁻), raising pH.

pH Scale

Measures acidity/alkalinity, 0-14; 7 neutral, <7 acidic, >7 basic.

Buffer

Solution that resists pH changes by absorbing excess H⁺ or OH⁻ (e.g., bicarbonate system).

Water

Most abundant, ~2/3 body weight; vital processes.

Lubrication (Water Property)

Water reduces friction between surfaces, allowing smooth movement (e.g., joints).

High Heat Capacity

Water can absorb large amounts of heat with little temperature change, aiding thermal stability.

Solvent (Water Property)

Water dissolves many substances to form solutions; water = solvent, dissolved particles = solutes.

Chemical Reactant (Water Property)

Water participates directly in many metabolic reactions (hydrolysis & dehydration).

Metabolite

Substance synthesized or broken down in the body’s chemical reactions.

Nutrient

Essential metabolite that must be obtained from the diet.

Organic Molecule

Compound that always contains carbon and hydrogen (e.g., sugars, fats, proteins, nucleic acids).

Inorganic Molecule

Substance that generally lacks carbon-hydrogen bonds (e.g., water, salts, acids, bases, CO₂).

Macromolecule

Large organic molecule assembled from smaller subunits (monomers).

Monomer

Small molecule that serves as a repeating subunit of a macromolecule.

Dehydration Synthesis

Reaction that joins monomers by removing water to form polymers.

Hydrolysis

Reaction that breaks polymers into monomers by adding water.

Carbohydrate

Organic molecule with C:H:O ratio of 1:2:1; main energy source and cell-surface marker.

Monosaccharide

Simple sugar monomer of carbohydrates (e.g., glucose, fructose).

Glucose

Primary metabolic fuel for body cells; a six-carbon monosaccharide.

Disaccharide

Carbohydrate formed by two monosaccharides (e.g., sucrose, lactose).

Polysaccharide

Complex carbohydrate of many monosaccharides (e.g., starch, glycogen).

Starch

Plant polysaccharide for energy; dietary glucose source.

Glycogen

Animal storage polysaccharide found in liver and muscle cells.

Lipid

Hydrophobic organic molecule with C:H ratio near 1:2; functions include energy storage, signaling, membranes.

Fatty Acid

Long hydrocarbon chain with a carboxyl group; basic lipid subunit and energy source.

Triglyceride

Glycerol plus three fatty acids; major energy reserve, insulation, and protection.

Glyceride

Lipid formed from glycerol attached to fatty acids; includes mono-, di-, and triglycerides.

Eicosanoid

Lipid derived from arachidonic acid; acts as local chemical messenger (e.g., prostaglandins).

Steroid

Lipid with four-ring carbon structure; includes cholesterol and steroid hormones.

Phospholipid

Amphipathic lipid with glycerol, two fatty acids, and a phosphate group; forms cell membranes.

Protein

Most abundant organic molecule; polymer of amino acids with structural and functional roles.

Amino Acid

Monomer of proteins; contains an amino group, carboxyl group, hydrogen, and R-group.

Primary Structure

Linear sequence of amino acids in a protein.

Secondary Structure

Folding of polypeptide into α-helices or β-sheets via hydrogen bonding.