Unit 1 AP Psych *all modules

natural selection

the principle that the inherited traits enabling an organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment will (in competition with other trait variations) most likely be passed on to succeeding generations

evolutionary psychology

the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection

environment

every non-genetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to our experiences to the people and things around us

heredity

genetic transfer of characteristics from parents to offspring

nervous system

the body’s speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems

peripheral nervous system (PNS)

parts: parts that connect the CNS to the rest of the body

functions: gathering information and for transmitting CNS decisions to other body parts

central nervous system (CNS)

parts: the brain and spinal cord

functions: body’s decision maker

sensory (afferent) neurons

neurons that carry incoming information from the body’s tissues and sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord

motor (efferent) neurons

neurons that carry outgoing information from the body’s tissues and sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands

interneurons

neurons within the brain and spinal cord; they communicate internally and process information between the sensory inputs and motor outputs

somatic nervous sustem

the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body’s skeletal muscles. also called the skeletal nervous system

autonomic nervous system (ANS)

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organ (such as the heart). its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms

sympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy

parasympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy

neuron

a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system

glial cells (glia)

cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons; they may also play a role in learning, thinking, and memory

threshold

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

refractory period

in neural processing, a brief resting pause that occurs after a neuron has fired; subsequent action potentials cannot occur until the axon returns to its resting statea

all or none response

a neuron’s reaction of either firing (with a full-strength response) or not firing

reuptake

a neurotransmitter’s re-absorption by the sending neuron

acetylcholine (ACH) (neurotransmitter)

function: enables muscle action, learning, and memory

example of malfunction: with alzheimer’s disease, ACH-producing neurons deteriorate

dopamine (neurotransmitter)

function: influences movement, learning, attention, and emotion

examples of malfunctions: oversupply linked to schizophrenia. undersupply linked to tremors and decreased mobility in parkinson’s disease

serotonin (neurotransmitter)

functions: affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal

examples of malfunctions: undersupply linked to depression, some drugs that raise serotonin levels are used to treat depression

norepinephrine (neurotransmitter)

function: helps control alertness and arousal

example of malfunctions: undersupply can depress mood

GABA (gamma aminobutyric acid) (neurotransmitter)

functions: a major inhibitory neurotransmitter; calms you down

examples of malfunctions: undersupplyy linked to seizures, tremors, and insomnia

glutamate (neurotransmitter)

functions: a major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory

example of malfunctions: oversupply can overstimulate the brain, parodying migraines or seizures.

endorphins (neurotransmitter)

functions: neurotransmitters that influence the perception of pain or pleasure

example of malfunctions: oversupply with opioid drugs can suppress the body’s natural endorphin supply

substance p (neurotransmitter)

functions: involved in pain perception and immune response

examples of malfunctions: oversupply can lead to chronic pain

endorphins

“morphine within”, natural, opiod-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure

agonist

a molecule that increases a neurotransmitter’s action

antagonist

molecule that inhibits or blocks a neurotransmitter’s action

hormones

chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissue

psychoactive drug

a chemical substance that alters the brain, causing changes in perceptions and moods

depressant

drugs that reduce neural activity and slow body functions

tolerance

the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug’s effect

addition

an everyday term for compulsive substance use (and sometimes for dysfunctional behavior patterns, such as out-of-control gambling) that continue despite harmful consequences

withdrawal

the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing an addictive drug or behavior

opioids

opium and its derivatives; they depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety

stimulants

drugs that excite neural activity and speed up body functionssuch as heart rate, breathing, and wakefulness. Examples include caffeine, nicotine, and amphetamines.

hallucinogens

psychedelic (“mind-manifesting”) drugs that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input

alcohol

depressant; initial high followed by relaxation and dis-inhibition; depression, memory loss, organ damage, impaired reactions

heroin

depressant; rush of euphoria, relief from pain; depressed physiology, loss of natural endorphin function

caffeine

stimulant; increased alertness and wakefulness; anxiety, restlessness, and insomnia in high doses

nicotine

stimulant; arousal and relaxation, sense of well-being; heart disease, cancer

cocaine

stimulant; rush of euphoria, confidence, energy; cardiovascular stress, suspiciousness, depressive crash

marijuana

mild hallucinogen; enhanced sensation, relief of pain, distortion of time, relaxation; impaired learning and memory, increased risk of psychological disorders

neuroplasticity (brain plasticity)

the brain’s ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience

lesion

tissue destruction. brain lesions may occur naturally (from disease or trauma), during surgery, or experimentally (using electrodes to destroy brain cells)

EEG

how does it work: electrodes placed on the scalp measure electrical activity in neurons

sample finding: symptoms of depression and anxiety correlate with increased activity in the right frontal lobe, a brain area associated with behavioral withdrawal and negative emotion

fMRI

how does it work: measures blood flow to brain regions by comparing continuous MRI scans

sample findings: years after surviving a near plane crash, passengers who viewed material related to their trauma showed greater activation in the brain’s fear, memory, and visual centers than when they watched the footage related to the 9/11 terrorist attacks

brainstem

the central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstorm is responsible for automatic survival functions

medulla (oblongata)

the hindbrain structure that is the brainstem’s base; controls heartbeat and breathing

thalamus

the forebrain sensory control center, located on the top of the brainstorm; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla

reticular formation (reticular activating system)

a nerve network that travels through the brainstorm into the thalamus; it filters information and plays an important role in controlling arousal

cerebellum

the hindbrain’s “little brain” at the rear of the brainstorm; its functions include processing sensory input, coordinating movement output and balance, and enabling nonverbal learning and memory

limbic system

neural system located mostly in the forebrain— below the cerebral hemispheres— that includes the amygdala, hypothalamus, hippocampus, thalamus, and pituitary gland; associated with emotions and drives

amygdala

two Lima bean sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion

hypothalamus

a limbic system neural structure line below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system, and is linked to emotion and reward

hippocampus

a neural center in the limbic system that helps process explicit (conscious) memories— of facts and events— for storage

cerebral cortex

the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the forebrain’s cerebral hemispheres: the body’s ultimate control and information processing center

frontal lobes

the portion of the cerebral cortex line just behind the forehead. they enable linguistic processing, muscle movements, higher order thinking, and executive functioning (such as making plans and judgment)

parietal lobes

the portion of the cerebral cortex line at the top of the head and towards the rear; it receives sensory input for touch and body position

occipital lobes

the portion of the cerebral cortex line at the top of the head and towards the rear; it receives sensory input for touch and body position

temporal lobes

the portion of the cerebral cortex line roughly above the ars; it includes the auditory areas, each of which receives information primarily from the opposite ear. they also enabled language processing

motor cortex

a cerebral cortex area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements

somatosensory cortex

a cerebral cortex area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations

association areas

areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary mode or sensory functions, but rather are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking

corpus callosum

the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them

consciousness

our subjective awareness of ourselves and our environment

blindsight

a condition in which a person can respond to a visual stimulus without consciously experiencing it

circadian rhythm

our biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (for example, of temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle

REM sleep

rapid eye movement sleep; a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active (sometimes called R sleep)

NREM sleep

non-rapid eye movement sleep; encompasses all sleep stages except for REM sleep

hypnagogic sensations

bizarre experiences, such as jerking or a feeling of falling or floating weightlessly, while transitioning to sleep (also called hypnic sensations)

ghrelin

a hunger arousing hormone

leptin

hunger suppressant

insomnia

ongoing difficulty falling or staying asleep. chronic tiredness, increased risk of depression, obesity, hypertension, and arthritic and fibromyalgia pain

narcolepsy

sudden attacks of overwhelming sleepiness. risk of falling asleep at a dangerous moment. attacks usually last less than 5 minutes, but they can happen at the worst and most emotional times. everyday activities, such as driving, require extra caution

sleep apnea

stopping breathing repeatedly while sleeping. fatigue and depression (as a result of slow wave sleep deprivation) associated with obesity (especially among men)

REM sleep behavior disorder

acting out the content of dreams while asleep, including vocalizing or motor behavior such as kicking or punching. risk of accidental injury to the sleeping person or to a bed partner

sensation

the process by which are sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment

perception

the process by which our brain organizes and interprets sensory information, enabling us to recognize objects and events as meaningful

bottom-up processing

information processing that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain’s integration of sensory information

top-down processing

information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations

transduction

conversion of one form of energy into another. in sensation, the transforming of physical energy, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses that the brain can interpret

absolute threshold

the minimum stimulus energy needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time

difference threshold (just-noticeable difference)

the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50% of the time. we experience the difference threshold as a just noticeable difference (or jnd)

Weber’s Law

the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount)

lens

the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina

retina

the light-sensitive back inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information

accommodation

(1) in sensation and perception, the process by which the eyes lens changes shape to focus images of near or far objects on the retina (2) in developmental psychology, adapting our current schemas (understandings) to incorporate new information(1) in vision, the adjustment of the eye's lens for focusing light properly, and (2) in psychology, modifying existing mental frameworks to include new experiences.

rods

retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray, and are sensitive to movement; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don’t respond

cones

retinal receptors that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. cones detect fine details and give rise to color sensations

optic nerve (visual nerve)

the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain

blind spot

the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a “blind” spot because no receptor cells are located there

fovea

the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye’s cones cluster

young-helmholtz trichromatic (three color) theory

the theory that the retina contains three different types of color receptors— one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue— which, when stimulated in combination, can produce the perception of any color

opponent-process theory (Hering)

the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, blue-yellow, white-black) enable color vision. for example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green

feature detectors

nerve cells in the brain’s visual cortex that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement

location: occipital lobe’s visual cortex

function: responds to specific shapes and angles

frequency

the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time (for example, per second)