International Polii\tics

International Relations (IR)

The study of how states and other actors interact with one another in world politics.

International Politics

The interactions, conflicts, and cooperation that occur among states and other actors in the international system.

International System

States and non-state actors collectively coexisting and interacting at a particular point in history.

Actor

A person, group, state, or organization that can influence international relations.

State

A political unit with a government, territory, population, and sovereignty.

Nation-State

A state whose population identifies as a nation and is governed by a central government.

Non-State Actors

Actors other than states that operate within or across state borders and have important effects on international relations.

Civil Society

Groups of non-state actors that operate outside government or business control.

Sovereignty

A state's authority to govern itself and control its territory without outside interference.

Interest

Something an actor considers important enough that it is willing to pay meaningful costs to maintain or achieve it.

Goal/Objectives

The specific outcome an actor wants to achieve.

Strategy

A plan that connects the means an actor uses to the end or goal it wants to achieve.

Policy Instruments

The specific tools used to achieve foreign-policy goals, such as diplomacy, economic incentives, propaganda, or military force.

Statecraft

The use of policy instruments by state leaders to achieve foreign-policy objectives.

Power

The ability of an actor to influence others or achieve desired outcomes.

Anarchy

The absence of a centralized world government or authority above states.

Self-Help System

A system in which states ultimately have to rely on themselves to protect their territory and political independence.

Cooperation

When actors work together to achieve compatible or mutually beneficial goals.

Conflict

When actors have incompatible interests or compete over goals, resources, power, or security.

Individual Level of Analysis

Focuses on individuals, especially leaders, their personalities, beliefs, experiences, and decisions.

State Level of Analysis

Focuses on characteristics within states, including political systems, institutions, domestic groups, public opinion, and economic conditions.

International Level of Analysis

Focuses on the international system and how relationships among states, anarchy, power, and the structure of the system affect behavior.

Individual-Level Example

A war being explained by a leader's personality, beliefs, ambitions, or personal decisions.

State-Level Example

A war being explained by a country's type of government or powerful domestic groups.

International-Level Example

A war being explained by anarchy, threats from other states, or competition within the international system.

Levels of Analysis

A framework used to organize explanations of international relations by looking at the individual, state, or international-system level.

Realism

A theory of international relations that emphasizes states, power, security, competition, and survival in an anarchic international system.

Realist Assumption #1

The international system is anarchic, meaning there is no central authority above states.

Realist Assumption #2

States are the main actors in international relations.

Realist Assumption #3

States are generally rational actors that calculate costs, benefits, risks, and opportunities.

Realist Assumption #4

Security is the central problem of international politics.

Realist Assumption #5

Security is competitive, so competition and conflict are enduring features of world politics.

Realist View of Human Nature

Realists generally emphasize that people and states are concerned with power, survival, and security.

Realist View of States

States are the central actors and compete with one another for survival and advantage.

Realist View of Cooperation

Cooperation is possible, but it is usually temporary or limited because states remain concerned about security and competition.

Realist View of History

Realists tend to see recurring patterns of power struggles and conflict rather than continuous progress toward peace.

Security

The protection and survival of a state from external threats.

Relative Gains

The concern with how much one state gains compared with another state.

Balance of Power

The idea that states try to prevent one state from becoming overwhelmingly powerful by balancing against it.

Alliance

An agreement between states to cooperate, often for security or defense.

Security Dilemma

A situation in which one state's attempt to make itself safer can make other states feel less safe, causing them to respond by increasing their own military capabilities.

Power Transition

The process in which the relative power of major states changes, potentially creating conflict between a rising and declining power.

Nationalism

A strong identification with and loyalty to one's nation that can reinforce the importance of the nation-state.

Liberalism

A theory of international relations that emphasizes cooperation, democracy, markets, institutions, individuals, groups, and the possibility of progress.

Liberal Assumption #1

Modernization is ongoing because humans constantly innovate, invent, and improve their capabilities.

Liberal Assumption #2

Individuals and groups, not just states, are important actors in international relations.

Liberal Assumption #3

Individuals and groups have incentives to trade, bargain, negotiate, and cooperate for mutual benefit.

Liberal Assumption #4

Modernization tends to move societies toward democracy and market-oriented economies.

Liberal Assumption #5

Progress is possible because humans can learn, improve their societies, recognize rights, and use the rule of law.

Modernization

The continuing process of innovation, technological development, and social improvement.

Progress

The liberal belief that human conditions can improve over time.

Joint Gains

The benefits that both sides receive from cooperation; the focus is on whether both sides can benefit.

Absolute Gains

The total benefits an actor receives from cooperation, without primarily comparing those benefits with another actor's gains.

Commercial Liberalism

The idea that trade and economic interdependence can encourage peaceful relations by making conflict more costly.

Economic Interdependence

When countries become economically connected through trade, investment, and other economic relationships.

Commercial Liberalism Logic

Trade creates economic ties, economic ties make conflict more costly, and higher costs create incentives for peace.

Vested Interests

Groups or economic interests that benefit from continued trade and therefore have an interest in maintaining peaceful relations.

Democratic Peace

The theory that democracies are unusually peaceful toward one another.

Democracy

A political system generally characterized by elected government, rule of law, free press, and political accountability.

Why Democratic Peace Might Occur

Democracies share political values and institutions, citizens bear the costs of war, and leaders can be held accountable for their decisions.

Liberal Institutionalism

The idea that international institutions can help states cooperate by providing rules, information, transparency, and predictability.

International Institutions

Organizations, rules, and arrangements that help structure interactions among states.

Neoliberal Institutionalism

The view that international anarchy exists, but institutions can still help states overcome mistrust, uncertainty, information problems, and commitment problems.

Functionalism

The idea that institutions serve useful functions by helping states solve problems and make cooperation easier and more durable.

International Law

Rules and principles that help establish expectations and regulate relations among states.

Transnationalism

The idea that groups within different countries can form relationships and cooperate across national borders.

Transnational Actors

Groups such as businesses, environmental organizations, human-rights organizations, religious groups, and scientific associations that operate across borders.

Cosmopolitanism

The idea that people can view themselves as global citizens and build communities and relationships across national borders.

Liberal View of Institutions

Institutions can make cooperation easier by reducing uncertainty, increasing information, and creating rules and expectations.

Liberal View of States

States matter, but they are influenced by their internal political and economic characteristics and by individuals and groups.

Liberal View of Cooperation

Cooperation is possible because actors can pursue mutual or joint gains rather than focusing only on competition.

Realism vs. Liberalism

Realism emphasizes power, security, competition, and relative gains; liberalism emphasizes cooperation, institutions, democracy, markets, and joint gains.

Realism on Anarchy

Anarchy creates insecurity and encourages states to compete for survival and security.

Liberalism on Anarchy

Liberalism accepts that anarchy exists but argues that cooperation can still occur despite the absence of a world government.

Realism on States

States are the primary actors in international relations.

Liberalism on Actors

Individuals, groups, firms, organizations, and states can all be important actors.

Realism on Gains

States are concerned with relative gains and whether another state gains an advantage.

Liberalism on Gains

Actors can focus on joint or absolute gains and the mutual benefits of cooperation.

Realism on Security

Security is the central concern, and states must constantly watch for threats.

Liberalism on Security

Security matters, but cooperation and institutions can help states manage security problems.

Realism on Institutions

Institutions are less important than state interests and power competition.

Liberal Institutionalism on Institutions

Institutions can help states cooperate even in an anarchic system.

Realism on Conflict

Competition and conflict are inherent and enduring features of international politics.

Liberalism on Conflict

Conflict exists, but trade, democracy, institutions, and cooperation can reduce it.

Trade and Peace

Liberalism argues that economic interdependence can encourage peace because conflict disrupts mutually beneficial economic relationships.

Democracies and War

Democratic peace theory argues that democracies tend to be peaceful toward other democracies, not that democracies never fight wars.

UN as an Institution

The United Nations is an example of an international institution that can help states cooperate.

World Government

The international system does not have a centralized world government governing all states.

Why Levels of Analysis Matter

They help scholars organize different explanations and identify what factors matter most in explaining an international event.

Can Levels of Analysis Be Combined?

Yes. A strong explanation can combine factors from multiple levels of analysis.

Scenario: Aggressive Leader

Individual level of analysis.

Scenario: Type of Government Causes Conflict

State level of analysis.

Scenario: Countries Compete Because There Is No World Government

International level of analysis.

Scenario: Trade Makes War More Expensive

Commercial liberalism.

Scenario: Two Democracies Avoid Fighting

Democratic peace.

Scenario: UN Helps Countries Cooperate

Liberal institutionalism.

Scenario: Environmental Groups Work Across Borders

Transnationalism.

Scenario: People Identify as Global Citizens

Cosmopolitanism.

Scenario: One Country Cares About Who Gains More

Relative gains and realism.

Scenario: Both Countries Benefit From Trade

Joint/absolute gains and liberalism.