Section 6: 'Never had it so good'?, 1951-57

How did life change social in the 1950s?

• Affluence and consumerism:

  • Consumerism: Sales of cars quadrupled from 1.5m-5.5m (1950-59). This facilitated more tourism, with 60k people holidaying in Butlins each week in the 1950s, and broke down religion isolation. However this shouldn`t be overstated, less than 2% of people enjoyed foreign holidays

  • Affluence: Wage growth was both nominal (the actually amount) and real (how much the wages buy you), as mens weekly wages almost double from £8.30-£15.35 (1951-61) without major increase in food prices

• Class:

  • Trad ideas of class increasingly challenged, eg through the literature of “the angry young men”, and failures of elite eg in 1956 Suez Crisis

  • Still dominated by the establishment, McMillians government had a Duke, a Marquess and Three Earls

• Women:

  • Work: Equal pay acts for teachers and civil servants in 1952 and 1954 respectively, and the number of women enrolled in university doubled from 14k-26k from 1945-57. However number of women in work collapsed, 1/5 by 1951, gender pay gap doubled to 40%, and womens percentage of the student population saw absolutely no growth, stagnating at roughly 25%

  • Leisure: Dress was less strict, and tea houses were swapped for coffee bars

How did womens leisure change in the 1950s?

Dress was less strict, and tea houses were swapped for coffee bars

How did womens employment change in the 1950s?

Equal pay acts for teachers and civil servants in 1952 and 1954 respectively, and the number of women enrolled in university doubled from 14k-26k from 1945-57. However number of women in work collapsed, 1/5 by 1951, gender pay gap doubled to 40%, and womens percentage of the student population saw absolutely no growth, stagnating at roughly 25%

How did the dominance of the ruling class remain?

Still dominated by the establishment, McMillians government had a Duke, a Marquess and Three Earls

How did the dominance of the ruling class declined?

Trad ideas of class increasingly challenged, eg through the literature of “the angry young men”, and failures of elite eg in 1956 Suez Crisis

How did consumerism increase in the 1950s?

Sales of cars quadrupled from 1.5m-5.5m (1950-59). This facilitated more tourism, with 60k people holidaying in Butlins each week in the 1950s, and broke down religion isolation. However this shouldn`t be overstated, less than 2% of people enjoyed foreign holidays

How did affluence increase in the 1950s?

Wage growth was both nominal (the actually amount) and real (how much the wages buy you), as mens weekly wages almost double from £8.30-£15.35 (1951-61) without major increase in food prices

How did the economy change/ how did the Conservatives manage the economy in the 1950s?

• Government management :

  • Butskellism: The combination of Tory Chancellor Butler and Labour leader Gaitskells names suggested the way the two parties had moved to the centre to form a “postwar consensus”, understanding the need for a mixed economy with both state, and market forces

  • Stop, start economics:

• "Start" (encouraging growth): 1953-55

• The economy was growing or slowing too much → Government wanted to boost demand.

• Cut taxes (e.g., income tax and purchase tax) to increase consumer spending.

• Kept interest rates low to make borrowing cheaper for businesses and consumers.

• Result: More spending, higher demand, and economic growth.

To fight inflation, the government used “stop” measures: 55-59

• Raised interest rates (which made borrowing more expensive).

• Cut government spending (which reduced demand in the economy).

• Industry:

  • Volume of employment: Unemployment fell from 1m in 1940, to 200k in 1955

  • Wages: Average male weekly wage increased from £8.30-£15.35 (1951-61) - second highest income per capita in the world after USA

  • Women: 80% of married women employed in war, to 1/5 of women employed by 1951

• Trade:

  • Exported 29% more in 1957 than it did in 1951, uptick in the global economy largely caused by Marshall plan.

  • However, Britain’s share of world trade trade stagnated, only increased from 15-17%

  • Although increase in “invisible trade”, by 1960 1/5 employed in service industry

How did Britains trade balance not improve

Britain’s share of world trade trade stagnated, only increased from 15-17%

How did Britains trade balance improve

• Exported 29% more in 1957 than it did in 1951, uptick in the global economy largely caused by Marshall plan.

• increase in “invisible trade”, by 1960 1/5 employed in service industry

How did the quality of employment increase?

Average male weekly wage increased from £8.30-£15.35 (1951-61) - second highest income per capita in the world after USA

How did the volume of employment increase?

Unemployment fell from 1m in 1940, to 200k in 1955

Explain stop, start economics

Attempting to manage inflation. Eg during a period of economic upturn between 1953-55, income and purchasing tax was cut to encourage spending. However this increase in wages and imports fueled inflation, leading to the implementation of higher interest rates and spending cuts between 1955-59. Reduced trade gap, but also reduced production

What was the term for a mixed market economy espoused by both Labour and the Conservatives?

Butskellism: The combination of Tory Chancellor Butler and Labour leader Gaitskells names suggested the way the two parties had moved to the centre to form a “postwar consensus”, understanding the need for a mixed economy with both state, and market forces

What were the reasons for the Conservatives political dominance?

• Consensus politics

• Domestic policies

• Labours division

• Individuals:

  • Churchill

  • Eden

  • Macmillan

Why did Labour “loose” the 1951 General Election?

Long term:

• Labour government was seen as aging and worn out. Attlee had been leader for 16 years (since 1935), with the average of a cabinet minister being 60 years old. They were from a pre-war era

Medium term - Betrayed its political base:

• Political rights:

  • Between 1945-51 troops were utilized to break up picket lines 18 times, including in the 1948 Docklands strike against Attlee’s own constituents

  • Retained Order 1305 (wartime legislation that could be used to make strikes illegal)

  • Revived the Supply and Transport Organization (which had been established by the Conservatives in the run up to the 1926 General Strike)

• Foreign policy:

  • After the 1945 election Bevin announced “‘British foreign policy will not be altered in any way under the Labour government,” a continuation of imperialist policy. Eg in response to the 1948-60 “Malayan Emergency” independence struggle, they introduced the “Briggs Plan (1949)” which relocated rural populations into “New Villages” to cut of support for the guerrillas, and passed emergency regulations that allowed detentions without trial

• Economic policy:

  • Stafford Cripps referred to as the austerity chancellor

Short term:

• Before the 1950 election was just after the 1949 devaluation of the pound (30% devaluation from $4.04 per pound to $2.80). Before 1951 economic recovery was faltering due to Korean War and the rearmament expenses associated. If it had held out a little longer it would have benefitted from the improved economic situation of 1952

What short term factors contributed to Labour loosing the 1951 election?

Before the 1950 election was just after the 1949 devaluation of the pound (30% devaluation from $4.04 per pound to $2.80). Before 1951 economic recovery was faltering due to Korean War and the rearmament expenses associated. If it had held out a little longer it would have benefitted from the improved economic situation of 1952

What medium term policy decision in regard to foreign policy contributed to Labour loosing the 1951 election?

After the 1945 election Bevin announced “‘British foreign policy will not be altered in any way under the Labour government,” a continuation of imperialist policy. Eg in response to the 1948-60 “Malayan Emergency” independence struggle, they introduced the “Briggs Plan (1949)” which relocated rural populations into “New Villages” to cut of support for the guerrillas, and passed emergency regulations that allowed detentions without trial

What medium term policy decision in regard to political liberties contributed to Labour loosing the 1951 election?

• Between 1945-51 troops were utilized to break up picket lines 18 times, including in the 1948 Docklands strike against Attlee’s own constituents

• Retained Order 1305 (wartime legislation that could be used to make strikes illegal)

• Revived Organisation for the Maintenance of Supplies
  (which had been established by the Conservatives in the run up to the 1926 General Strike)

What longer term factors contributed to Labour loosing the 1951 election?

Labour government was seen as aging and worn out. Attlee had been leader for 16 years (since 1935), with the average of a cabinet minister being 60 years old. They were from a pre-war era

Why did the Conservatives “win” the 1951 General Election?

Ideological shift - reacted to political climate:

• Churchill had called the NHS a “socialist experiment”, but had mellowed his anti-welfare sentiment, going as far as to promise more new houses than LAbour (300k compared to 200k)

• At the same time, they projected themselves as upholders of liberty and individualism against the withered hand of State ownership. This more centrist balance allowed them to take better advantage of the now 2m ex-liberal voters now in consistuencies without Liberal Candidates (who stood 109 candidates in 1951 compared to 366 in 1950)

Leadership shift:

• Combined experience and status of Churchill and Eden with younger, fresher members such as R.A Butler

Organizational shift:

• The “Woolton Plan” focused on improving local constituency organizing, fundraising and voter outreach. By 1951 they have up to 350 full time consituency agents, and 2.8m members, while Labour less than 200 agents and 900,000 members

How did the Conservative's shift organisationally in order to win the 1951 election?

The “Woolton Plan” focused on improving local constituency organizing, fundraising and voter outreach. By 1951 they have up to 350 full time consituency agents, and 2.8m members, while Labour less than 200 agents and 900,000 members

How did the Conservatives shifts ideologically in order to win the 1951 General election?

• Churchill had called the NHS a “socialist experiment”, but had mellowed his anti-welfare sentiment, going as far as to promise more new houses than LAbour (300k compared to 200k)

• At the same time, they projected themselves as upholders of liberty and individualism against the withered hand of State ownership. This more centrist balance allowed them to take better advantage of the now 2m ex-liberal voters now in consistuencies without Liberal Candidates (who stood 109 candidates in 1951 compared to 366 in 1950)

How did the Conservatives shift their leadership in order to win the 1951 general election?

Combined experience and status of Churchill and Eden with younger, fresher members such as R.A Butler

How did Labour weakness lead to the Conservatives political dominance during the 1950s?

Split:

• Ideologically: (% = vote in 1955 leadership election)

  • Gaitskell - technocratic, right-wing of the party (58.8%)

  • Bevan - left-wing of the party (26.2%)

  • Morrison - a relative centrist (right of the party historically, but less so than Gaitskell) (14%)

• Generational - Old guard vs New guard:

  • Bevan and Morrison - pre-war and wartime generation of Labour leadership

  • Gaitskell - more modern, managerial approach to politics that departed from the class-based rhetoric of the 1930s/40s

• Structural shift in power base:

  • Labour had always been a broad alliance between the w/c TU movement and m/c reformers (often from the Fabian tradition)

  • However in the 50s, the balance began to shift the more m/c technocratic, and Oxbridge educated wing, whos power in leadership and policymaking circles, increased as many pre-war w/c veterans retired, increasing friction

  • This relates to the ideological differences expressed in the 1955 leadership election, but ran much deeper, touching on Labour very identity

Consensus politics:

• Butskellism

How was the Labour Party split structurally?

Structural shift in power base:

• Labour had always been a broad alliance between the w/c TU movement and m/c reformers (often from the Fabian tradition)

• However in the 50s, the balance began to shift the more m/c technocratic, and Oxbridge educated wing, whos power in leadership and policymaking circles, increased as many pre-war w/c veterans retired, increasing friction

• This relates to the ideological differences expressed in the 1955 leadership election, but ran much deeper, touching on Labour very identity

How was the Labour Party spilt generationally?

Old guard vs New guard:

• Bevan and Morrison - pre-war and wartime generation of Labour leadership

• Gaitskell - more modern, managerial approach to politics that departed from the class-based rhetoric of the 1930s/40s

How was the Labour Party spilt ideologically?

% = vote in 1955 leadership election

• Gaitskell - technocratic, right-wing of the party (58.8%)

• Bevan - left-wing of the party (26.2%)

• Morrison - a relative centrist (right of the party historically, but less so than Gaitskell) (14%)

How did domestic policies contribute Conservative dominance during the 1950s?

Housing:

• More council houses: 1951 Conservative manifesto promised 300,000 houses/ year from 51-54. However, this meant the council houses built were of lower quality

• More controlled private sector: Housing Repairs and Rents Act (1954) – gave landlords incentives to improve rental property conditions (eg setting out clearer definitions for what consituted necessary repair). However also allowed controlled rent increases

• Overall they build 1.5 million new homes and 250,000 “prefab houses

NHS:

• Churchill described the NHS as a “socialist experiment”, wary of government running hospitals/doctors. This being said, far from dismantling the NHS spending increased from £437m-£600m 1951-57, though made prescription charges permanent (shows consensus)

Factories:

• 1951 Factory Act increased states power to inspect factories to ensure health and safety regulation

However…Education: Continued to implement tripartite system

• Class inequality: Technical schools received 60-80% the per pupil funding that Grammar schools did, while Secondary moderns received just 50-70% (dependent upon local authority)

• Gender inequality: Girls generally had to score 10-15% higher than boys in +11 to maintain roughly equal numbers of boys and girls

• Needs of industry: Only 2-3% of schools technical schools, shortage of skilled trade labour

How did the Conservatives not improve education?

• Class inequality: Technical schools received 60-80% the per pupil funding that Grammar schools did, while Secondary moderns received just 50-70% (dependent upon local authority)

• Gender inequality: Girls generally had to score 10-15% higher than boys in +11 to maintain roughly equal numbers of boys and girls

• Needs of industry: Only 2-3% of schools technical schools, shortage of skilled trade labour

How did the Conservatives improve factory conditions?

1951 Factory Act increased states power to inspect factories to ensure health and safety regulation

How did the Conservatives improve the NHS?

Churchill described the NHS as a “socialist experiment”, wary of government running hospitals/doctors. This being said, far from dismantling the NHS spending increased from £437m-£600m 1951-57, though made prescription charges permanent (shows consensus)

How did the Conservatives improve the housing sector?

• More council houses: 1951 Conservative manifesto promised 300,000 houses/ year from 51-54. However, this meant the council houses built were of lower quality

• More controlled private sector: Housing Repairs and Rents Act (1954) – gave landlords incentives to improve rental property conditions (eg setting out clearer definitions for what consituted necessary repair). However also allowed controlled rent increases

• Overall they build 1.5 million new homes and 250,000 “prefab houses

How did Churchill, Eden and Macmillian help maintain Conservative Party dominance from 1951-57?

Churchill:

• Huge amount of political capital due to his role in the war

Eden:

• Seen as hugely experienced. Had been an PM since 1923, Foreign secretary from 1940-45, and Deputy PM from 1951-55. In comparison Gaitskell had entered parliament in 1945

Macmillian:

• Strong communicator. First British MP to fully embrace television as a political tool, with TV playing a central role in the 1959 Conservative general election campaign and contributing to their landslide (eg “You`ve never had it so good speech”)

To what extent was the 1950s a time of political consensus?

Socially:

• NHS spending increased from £437m-£600m 1951-57, though made prescription charges permanent (shows consensus)

• Housing, Tories expanded on Labours council housing, built 1.5m

• Factories, 1951 Factory Act increased states power to inspect factories to ensure health and safety regulation

However…

• Education, Labour against tripartite system

Politically:

• Agree on Nuclear weapons as a deterrent. Continued the Labour entered Korean War (1950-53)

However…

• Spoke out against military invention in Suez. This being said, they criticised it for its potential damage to the UKs reputation and economy, not from an anti-colonial standpoint

Economically:

• Continued with mixed market, Butskellism economics.

However…

• Butler and Gaiskell had different approaches to Keynesian economics. Bulter introduced indirect tax (eg increased VAT in 1955) compared to Gaitskells preference for direct taxation

• Privatized iron and steel in 1953

In what way was their social consensus in the 1950s?

• NHS spending increased from £437m-£600m 1951-57, though made prescription charges permanent (shows consensus)

• Housing, Tories expanded on Labours council housing, built 1.5m

• Factories, 1951 Factory Act increased states power to inspect factories to ensure health and safety regulation

In what way was their not social consensus in the 1950s?

Education, Labour against tripartite system

In what way was their not economic consensus in the 1950s?

• Butler and Gaiskell had different approaches to Keynesian economics. Bulter introduced indirect tax (eg increased VAT in 1955) compared to Gaitskells preference for direct taxation

• Privatized iron and steel in 1953

In what way was their economic consensus in the 1950s?

Continued with mixed market, Butskellism economics.

In what way were their political consensus in the 1950s?

Agree on Nuclear weapons as a deterrent. Continued the Labour entered Korean War (1950-53)

In what way were their not political consensus in the 1950s?

Labour spoke out against military invention in Suez. This being said, they criticised it for its potential damage to the UKs reputation and economy, not from an anti-colonial standpoint

Why was their increased migration to Britain?

• Push factors: Potential political or economic uncertainty in home state. Eg many South Asians predicted partition to be violent (roughly 1m died)

• Pull factors: 2m homes destroyed or damaged in the Blitz, including 1m in London alone, so high demand for construction jobs. Establishment of NHS, high demand for healthcare workers

Resulted in….

• 1948 Nationalities Act which confirmed the right of Commonwealth citizens to come and settle in Britain – 400m people, 26% of the worlds population

• 250k people migrated from 1948-57

How many people migrated to the UK between 1948-57?

• 1948 Nationalities Act which confirmed the right of Commonwealth citizens to come and settle in Britain – 400m people, 26% of the worlds population

• 250k people migrated from 1948-57

What pull factors led to an increase in immigration to the UK?

2m homes destroyed or damaged in the Blitz, including 1m in London alone

What push factors led to an increase in immigration to the UK?

Potential political or economic uncertainty in home state. Eg many South Asians predicted partition to be violent (roughly 1m died), or people from the West Indies came after the destruction of 1944 Great Atlantic Hurricane (hit the Lesser Antilles)

What were the negative attitudes towards migrants in the UK?

• Explicit economic discrimination: The “Colour Bar” was a quota system introduced by employers such as Fords Dagenham that only allowed 5% of its workforce to be made up of non-white employees

• Implicit economic discrimination: Charged higher rents or outright excluded by some landlords, causing more migrants to concentrate in cheaper, urban areas (eg East London)

• Political discrimination: Government, Churchill said “I hate Indians. They are a beastly people with a beastly religion” and in wider society, eg 1958 Noting Hill Race riots, instigated by w/c “Teddy Boys”

How were migrants politically discriminated against?

Government, Churchill said “I hate Indians. They are a beastly people with a beastly religion” and in wider society, eg 1958 Noting Hill Race riots, instigated by w/c “Teddy Boys”

How were migrants economically discriminated against?

• Explicit economic discrimination: The “Colour Bar” was a quota system introduced by employers such as Fords Dagenham that only allowed 5% of its workforce to be made up of non-white employees

• Implicit economic discrimination: Charged higher rents or outright excluded by some landlords, causing more migrants to concentrate in cheaper, urban areas (eg East London)

What were the positive attitudes towards migrants in the UK?

• Economic support: Some trade unions, eg TGWU, began campaigns to support migrant workers and oppose discrimination in workplaces. 1963 Bristol Bus Boycott led the “Colour Bar” from the Bristol Omnibus company

• Political support (top of society): Bevan saw racial discrimination as part of the broader struggle against social injustice and inequality, with vision of socialism included equality regardless of background

• Political support (wider society): Groups like the London Council of Churches (loose body of Liberal churches) support community unity programs and condemned racial violence, providing housing assistance and social support to migrants facing discrimination

How were migrants economically supported?

Some trade unions, eg TGWU, began campaigns to support migrant workers and oppose discrimination in workplaces. 1963 Bristol Bus Boycott led the “Colour Bar” from the Bristol Omnibus company

How were migrants politically supported by politicians?

Bevan saw racial discrimination as part of the broader struggle against social injustice and inequality, with vision of socialism included equality regardless of background

How were migrants politically supported by wider society?

Groups like the London Council of Churches (loose body of Liberal churches) support community unity programs and condemned racial violence, providing housing assistance and social support to migrants facing discrimination

What positive economic impacts of migrants on Britain?

• Volume of labour: 250k people from 1948-57

• Quality of labour: Up to 15k nursers migrated (especially from the West Indies)

What positive social impacts of migrants on Britain?

Led to a cultural revival after postwar depression:

• Cultural events: “Caribbean Carnival” began being held every year in St Pancras Town Hall in 1959 in response to the 1958 Notting Hill Riots

• Cuisine: The first widely acknowledged “modern” Indian curry restaurant that influenced the popular curry culture was The Shish Mahal, opened in 1959 in Bradford

• Music: Lord Kitchener, a famous Trinidadian calypso singer, performed for a BBC radio broadcast in 1951. This helped introduce calypso to a wider British audience beyond the Caribbean community

Often described as a cultural renaissance

How did migrants impact cuisine?

The first widely acknowledged “modern” Indian curry restaurant that influenced the popular curry culture was The Shish Mahal, opened in 1959 in Bradford

How did migrants impact music?

Lord Kitchener, a famous Trinidadian calypso singer, performed for a BBC radio broadcast in 1951. This helped introduce calypso to a wider British audience beyond the Caribbean community

How did migrants impact cultural events?

“Caribbean Carnival” began being held every year in St Pancras Town Hall in 1959 in response to the 1958 Notting Hill Riots

Outline the development of nuclear weapons in the UK

• 1940: Due to war, Churchill set up MAUD Committee to research the feasibility of building a nuclear weapon. They conclude that development should begin immeidately

• 1941: Due to costs of war, the UK research group (codenamed tube Alloys) merged into into the US Manhattan project

• 1945: 6th of August, bomb dropped on Hiroshima, killing nearly 100k people

• 1946: US Congress pass 1946 Atomic Energy Act (also called McMahon Act) that ends agreement with Britain, despite pre-existing agreement

• 1949: USSR successfully tests its first nuclear weapon

• 1952: UK tests its first nuclear weapon in Western Australia, gets Aboriginal people and 39,000 servicemen witnessed 45 atomic and hydrogen bombs from 1952-67

How did various groups view nuclear weapons?

• Public: 60% approval in 1952. Saw it as a way for Britain to ensure its great power status

• Attlee and Bevin: Bevin stated ““We've got to have this thing over here whatever it costs” to ensure Britains great power status

• Churchill: In 1954 set up the UK Atomic Energy authority (UKAEA). Its role was to oversee policies for the civilian and defence use of Atomic Energy

• Bevan: Initally completely against it, he changed his view at the 1957 party conference

• CND: Created in 1957. Support from base of society (110k members by 1983) + TU movement (general secretary of TGWU Frank Cousins) + future Labour leader Michael Foot founding member