YR1SM2 PS101: Chapter 7 Human Development

Prenatal chemicals meaning? Example?

chemicals that form during pregnancy, hence prenatal, and whose amount within the developing fetus impacts his/her genetic makeup

Growth Factor II

In utero (within the womb, within the uterus), low levels of GFII are associated with what? (2)

lower neuronal development

higher anxiety levels

What influences the amount of GFII, and what psychological argument does this fall under?

Nature, in that the parent's genetic makeup influences the amount, and nurture, in that the organism's environment can influence as well

What did researchers discover about the connection between GFII-nurture-anxiety?

Even among babies born with low levels of GFII, an enriching environment—interpersonal interaction, nourishment, puzzles, books, recreational—can greatly increase GFII

What are teratogens and how do they argue for the validity of nurture impact?

Teratogens are non-genetic, external agents—controllable or uncontrollable—that harm the embryo or fetus

Name an example of a controllable and uncontrollable teratogen

CONTROLLABLE: pregnancy alcohol intake can result in an underdeveloped brain

UNCONTROLLABLE: 2nd trimester flu is linked with a greater chance of child having low GFII/high anxiety

Name two proposals as for the importance of inherent, online reflexes

survival

to act as a basis for cognitively learning the varied utility of the reflex/further develop its motor complexity

Name 3 examples of online motor reflexes present from birth

remarkably strong grasping

rooting

sucking

Proposed theory for why the grasp reflex exists at birth but fades away over the next few days

grasping is a leftover reflex from the primate ancestors who relied on grasping from an early age for many tasks; however, humans have long since carried their babies, reducing the need for this reflex until an older age

Evidence to support the primate ancestor - grasping theory

when newborn babies grasp an object with one hand, they will swing around like a chimpanzee in order to grasp with their other hand too

Describe rooting and its likely purpose

the mouth opening and head turning in the direction of the perceived touch, this action increasing the likelihood of finding a nipple to latch onto

What part of observational learning is inherently online, and what part is not?

babies naturally imitate those around them, but they do not cognitively learn the reason behind such behaviors until further development

What part of visual perception is inherently online, and what part is not?

babies naturally perform the process of visual perception, but they do not have the biological means to produce complex, detailed images

Why do babies have poor vision?

The fovea currently has cones that are really short and fat and need time to elongate and fill the space

What environmental factor assist in developing visual complexity?

exposure to high contrast objects, such as black and white objects

Which depth cues are inherently online, and which are not? In order to develop the latter, what must be done?

monocular cues; binocular cues; frequent interaction with the 3D world

How did Gibson and Walk (1960) prove that complete depth perception develops post birth?

through the visual cliff apparatus: a baby was placed on an elevated, checkered platform and was encouraged to cross over plexi glass that covered the lowered, checkered platform; typically, older babies did not cross since they recognized the depth disparity; however, younger babies, with less developed depth perception, crossed over

What did Adolph and colleagues' (2014) idea of locomotor learning propose?

that a developed binocular system and experience in walking open the way for babies to perform more complex motions that appropriately suit different environments

Results of Adolph and colleagues' locomotor learning experiment?

When presented with a steep slope, babies underdeveloped in walking and depth perception walked down it, ultimately falling forward

Babies developed in walking and depth perception would turn around and slowly slide down, or turn around and crawl down

Describe the local and global process of facial recognition

Local processing looks individually at the local, specific elements of a face such as nose, eyes, mouth

Global processing groups all the local features together to form a face

How does the Margaret Thatcher illusion fool people?

When presented with the faces upside down, the brain uses a shortcut by grouping together the facial elements and assuming it is a normal face

What did researchers find in regards to the processes of facial recognition automatic at birth?

Like adults with the illusion, babies showed a quick reaction time to the upside down face, assuming it to be normal, but a long reaction time to the upright face, indicating that both local and global are present from birth as well as their specific manner of use

What are phonemes?

the smallest units of sounds

How does phoneme perception change in babies?

Really young babies can perceive all phonemes across all languages, but around 12 months, they are unable to perceive phonemes not within the language of their environment

Phoneme perception: English-raised vs Japanese-raised babies

At 12 months and older, English babies can still distinguish between L and R, while Japanese babies can no longer

How does one lose their ability to distinguish between some phonemes while progressing their ability to speak in the language of their environment?

As the baby develops in utero, many synapses, more than needed, form via synaptic genesis, but as the baby repeatedly hears and exercises the phonemes of one language and not of others, those synapses will strengthen, while the unused phoneme synapses will be pruned

How does perceived language development within a child vary internally and externally?

Internally, language development progresses continuously through synaptic pruning and strengthening, but externally, it seems to progress in a discontinuous, stage-like manner: the baby starts speaking seemingly overnight

Purpose of forming attachment during youth

to increase survival chances at a vulnerable age by strengthening the bond with guardian figures

How does the baby's smell, smiling, and crying send signals for increased attachment?

both smell and smiling activate reward centers in the guardians, while crying activates the urge to protect

Imprinting vs attachment

imprinting commonly occurs in animals and is mostly a means of learning, while attachment is a means of learning, protection, and emotional comfort

How did Konrad Lorenz experiment with imprinting?

With one batch of baby geese, he wore star-patterned boots, causing the geese to only follow him while he wore these boots; for another, he wore triangle-patterned boots, causing those geese to only follow him with those boots

What did Konrad Lorenz discover about imprinting?

During a short window right after birth, animals automatically become imprinted not onto their mother necessarily, but rather to whatever they see first

Behaviorists' belief as to how attachment occurs; 1950's

attachment occurs due to the mother providing food/nourishment

How did Harry Harlow prove that attachment formed through other means as well?

He allowed the baby monkey to freely move between a heated, cloth monkey with no food and a heated, wired monkey with food, and the monkey spent most of its time with the cloth monkey since it provided more comfort

How does separation from the mother and separation from the whole clan (and mother) impact an organism as it grows up?

Separation from mother results in some dysfunctional behavior and poor social and emotional ability, while separation from the whole clan results in very dysfunctional behavior, aggression to others and oneself, and poor emotional and cognitive ability

Describe the strange situation experiment setup by Mary Ainsworth

A mom-baby pair would be placed in a room filled with toys; mom would temporarily leave; baby would become upset no matter what; mom returns, and the variable of interest was how the baby responded to her return

Strange Situation: 3 key observations in securely-attached babies

baby immediately seeks comfort from the mom, the contact calms the baby, and the baby feels more comfortable to begin exploring the room

Strange situation: key observations in avoidant-attached babies and what this signals

even though the mother's departure was the source of their distress, when the mother returns, the baby reacts rather passively and does not seek contact with her, suggesting that the baby does not see the mother as a source of comfort

Strange situation: key observations in resistant/ambivalent/anxious babies

even though the baby anxiously seeks comfort from the mom when she is gone and when she returns, when presented with that comfort, the baby resists and remains inconsolable

What can explain why resistant/ambivalent/anxious babies seek but also resist comfort? (2)

inconsistent parenting: sometimes respond to child's needs, sometimes do not; child cannot rely on parent(s)

the child craves connection but does not act out on this desire, out of fear of abandonment or rejection

How is disorganized attachment like a mix of avoidant and resistant/ambivalent/anxious attachment?

due to unhealthy, inconsistent, and neglectful parenting, the baby does not readily seek out comfort out of fear and uncertainty, but simultaneously they wish for it out of necessity

Common signs of secure-attachment in adulthood?

the adult is emotionally confident, can form healthy, intimate relationships, and is comfortable seeking and providing help

Common signs of avoidant attachment in adulthood?

the adult is emotionally reclusive, often withdraws to deal with difficulties alone, and struggles to form intimate relationships with others

Common signs of resistant/ambivalent/anxious attachment in adulthood?

the adult is emotionally inconsistent—sometimes craving and sometimes rejecting affection, shows clinginess out of fear of abandonment, and struggles to form relationships

Common signs of disorganized attachment in adulthood?

the adult has low self-esteem and difficulty in regulating emotions, trusting others, and handling rejection well

Why is oxytocin nicknamed the "love hormone"?

physical activities such as breastfeeding, hugging, and cuddling release it, which in turn promotes further exercise of the activity

Why is it unfair to blame solely the incompetency of the parents if they display an insecure attachment style?

so many other factors at play that influence the attachment style developed

Describe an example of how cultural differences do not align with the attachment styles

some cultures use much cuddling while others use little to express affection, and since the attachment styles are largely based off parent-child physical interaction, non-cuddling cultured parents and children may more so be classified as insecure

Colic baby

the baby cries for excessively long periods of time, often for no clear reason

Night terrors

Night terrors occur when the baby is stuck in the sleep cycle, waking up superficially and screaming with eyes open but not mentally awake and thus inconsolable

Why might a parent with a child who experiences night terrors be classified as showing insecure attachment?

Over time, the parent may become less respondent to the baby, not because they don't care, but because they're unsure if the baby actually needs comfort or is just experiencing a night terror; if the baby actually needs comfort but the parent does not come, an insecure attachment may develop

Name an example of a physical limitation that hinders physical contact between parent and child

if a mother has twins or triplets, then they may not have the physical capacity to hold all of them

What did Diana Baumrind propose about the impact of parenting on adulthood?

the balance between behavioral boundaries and independence influences the child's psych as they mature

Authoritarian vs authoritative parenting

Authoritarian parenting leaves no room for child input, while authoritative parenting considers child input and adapts the balance of boundaries and independence as the child matures

Permissive parenting

over-indulgent with few boundaries set in place

Uninvolved parenting

providing basic needs but no emotional connection

Authoritarian parenting common outcomes

well-disciplined, high achievers, and resilient to societal challenges, but lacking in social skills, trust, and independent thinking

Authoritative parenting common outcomes

self-assured, independent, well-disciplined and adequate in handling emotions, motivation, and social skills

Permissive parenting common outcomes

creative and social, though struggle with rules and impulse control

Uninvolved parenting common outcomes

struggle with low self-esteem, trust, social skills, and emotion regulation

What does Jean Piaget propose about schema?

As the child and environment interact, the child develops new schema, cognitive structures/abilities, and alters old ones

What are considered the most basic schema, and their purpose?

EX?

reflexes online since birth, not just for survival but to serve as base schemas for further complexity

sucking allows baby to latch onto mother, but it also acts as the gateway to learning how to suck different objects and thus modify the original schema

Name and describe Piaget's 2 stages of developing schema? In relation to sucking?

ASSIMILATION: the organism tries to fit new processes into old schema; baby tries sucking pacifier but it falls out because baby not familiar with it

ACCOMMODATION: the organism has adapted its schema to fit new processes; baby has modified sucking pattern to latch onto pacifier

2 considerations regarding the validity of Piaget's 4 Stages Theory?

-small sample size: only studied children

-children likely very smart and so their development isn't reflective of average child

Piaget Stage 1: general description and approx. age range

Sensorimotor stage, marked by rapid adaptation of reflex schema and awareness of the existence of surroundings

Solipsism

infants cannot distinguish themselves and the environment as separate, believing their experiences as the only reality

Name the class example of an infant developing cause-effect understanding

after a baby boy happens to press a button that activates a song, he understands this relationship and presses again to listen

Lack of object permanence in infants means that

they cannot comprehend the existence of objects outside their ready perception

Piaget's 2nd Stage: age range and 3 key markers

PREOPERATIONAL; ~2-7

-use words/objects to symbolize larger ideas

-egocentric: struggle to see multiple perspectives and relate multiple ideas back to one object; EX: Daddy's not your husband, he's my Daddy

-does not understand reversibility, so struggles with law of conservation

Piaget's 3rd Stage: age range and 3 key markers

CONCRETE OPERATIONAL; ~7-12

-understands multiple perspectives and connects ideas

-understands conservation

-can think logically at a basic level (EX: clear cause-effect) but cannot reason abstractly

Piaget's 4th Stage: age range and key marker

FORMAL OPERATIONAL; 12 -

abstract and hypothetical thinking

Jean Piaget vs Lev Vygotsky's view on language

Unlike Piaget, Vygotsky viewed cognitive development as not just independent, but dependent on learning from others (interpersonal play!), so Vygotsky saw language as the means of cognitive development while Piaget saw language as a result of cognitive development

How did Vygotsky describe scaffolding as

the process of a learning individual needing less and less support from the More Knowledgeable Other as they further internalize the information

Name 4 examples of scaffolding in everyday life

hints

rubric

instructions

training wheels that gradually become higher and higher

Scaffolding chimpanzee nut cracking example: 3 parts

1) baby struggling to crack nut

2) mother slowly demonstrates the various grips and angles to use

3) baby mimics

Describe the 3 regions of the zone of proximal development

the most interior region refers to the child's current ability

the outer region refers to the MKO's ability, or the ability currently out of child's reach

the middle circle separating the two refers to the Zone of Proximal Development, or the guidance that the MKO gives

Why is basic playing so important in development?

Basic playtime actions can eventually apply to more complex situations, such as a parent and child taking turns with a ball contributing to taking turns in conversation

Emotional development refers to

developing one's personality/character/emotional being

How was Eric Erikson's viewpoint on emotional development more optimistic than that of his teacher, Freud?

Freud believed that people only had until ~5 years to develop a personality, and while Erikson still saw adolescence as a key time for emotional development, he believed it could happen all throughout life

Moving between stages (8 total) according to Eric Erikson

-each stage requires a conflict to overcome

-passage to next stage comes with age, not solving the conflict

-if the conflict is not solved, it is just carried over

Erikson's Stage 1: Trust vs Mistrust

What is the baby trying to solve, how can it solve, and what if it doesn't solve?

who to trust and not trust by seeing who responds to its emotional needs; if never resolved, becomes suspicious and doubtful

Erikson's Stage 2: Autonomy vs Shame

What is the baby trying to solve, how can it solve, and what if it doesn't solve?

to what extent can they perform tasks on their own without being reprimanded and shamed; this stage heavily depends on parents letting kids make their own choices and interfering only when necessary; if never resolves, feels overly dependent and feels shame when cannot meet expectations

Erikson's Stage 3: Initiative vs Guilt

Difference from stage 2?

The child is not just seeing how many tasks they can do alone, but if they can initiate these tasks and feel comfortable, not guilt-ridden, with the possibility that things won't always go as planned

In "Cooking with Bailey and Jacob", when the kids stop themselves from touching the stove, what two things does this indicate?

the parent lets the children mess up or come close to, as seen since the parent does not immediately intervene

the children pulls back hand and looks a little nervous, indicating that the parents have established boundaries, not to instill guilt or fear but for well-being

What happens if someone never resolves initiative vs guilt?

They are constantly scared of messing up and the reprimands and guilt that will follow, so they just don't initiate

Erikson's Stage 4: Industry vs Inferiority

What is the child trying to solve, and what can parents do to assist?

trying to establish their creative ability and confidence; parents should allow children to come up and execute their own ideas, only interfering when necessary

Differences between someone who has resolved industry vs inferiority and someone who has not?

those who have solved feel confident in paving out their life, while those who haven't feel incompetent and must always rely on external help

Erikson's Stage 5: Identity vs Role Confusion (previously known as role diffusion)

What is the person trying to solve? What can parents do to assist?

trying to figure out what various aspects of identity feel most right to them; parents should let teenagers explore, experiment, and independently interact with peers rather than control habits and beliefs

What is someone never resolves identity vs role confusion?

they suffer role confusion, constantly questioning who they are and constantly changing parts of themselves

How does prenatal development defy the cultural/social construction of two, strict genders?

Chemicals in utero cause

-humans to have different testosterone/estrogen levels, meaning that gender is a continuum rather than dichotomous

-humans to have both male and female traits

Fetal microchimerism

during pregnancy, fetal cells migrate to the mom, altering her genetic makeup and thus being passed down to successive pregnancies

Possible research connecting fetal microchimerism to sexuality?

When male fetal testosterone transfers to the mom, her immune system attacks it and leaves less testosterone for the next babies, leading to a higher possibility of the next male being gay

Influence of testosterone on the 2:4 digit ratio

the ratio of index:ring finger depends on testosterone, with more testosterone --> lower 2:4 ratio (less than 1), taller ring finger --> more aggressive and adept at spatial representation

less testosterone --> higher 2:4 ratio (more than 1), shorter ring finger --> more agreeable and less adept at spatial representation

How does the 2:4 digit ratio defy the idea of dimorphic traits (traits solely present in male or female)?

Both men and women can have either ratio, it's just that a lower 2:4 ratio is more common in men and a higher ratio is more common in women

How did James Marcia expand on identity vs role confusion?

He outlined 4 different resolutions of varying healthiness based on the level of exploration done and the level of commitment made

High Exploration, High Commitment: name and description

IDENTITY ACHIEVEMENT

someone has explored a lot, and once finding an identity that really resonates, sticks with it

High Exploration, Low Commitment: name and description

MORATORIUM

someone has explored a lot, but they just haven't determined which identity best fits them yet

Low Exploration, High Commitment: name and description

IDENTITY FORECLOSURE

restricted and dictated in choice but have committed to this chosen identity, potentially leading to identity struggles further on

Low Exploration, Low Commitment: name and description

IDENTITY DIFFUSION/CONFUSION

went throughout life either not knowing or not caring enough to explore, causing them to progress mindlessly and aimlessly; "go with the flow"

Erikson's Stage 6: Intimacy vs Isolation

What is the person trying to solve?

whether they will pursue close relationships or close themself off