reconstruction

reconstruction

the period after the Civil War during which the Southern states were restored to the Union. The period (1865-1877) was one of painful readjustment, the consequences of which have been felt well into the future of the nation

economic problems of reconstruction

the economic life of the South had to be rebuilt after the abolition of free labour.

the South was suffering from war devastation, social and economic disorganisation, and lack of food and other necessities of life.

Plantation were in ruin and thousands of freed blacks wandered from place to place without homes or jobs. During the war, many whites had abandoned their homes and farms.

Factories, bridges, railroads, and other facilities had been largely wrecked

political problems of reconstruction

the Southern states had to be brought back into the Union and civil government, lacking in most Southern states since the end of the war, had to be reestablished

social problems of reconstruction

in the midst of an atmosphere of hate and bitterness, a new set of relationships between whites and blacks had to be worked out and the status of the newly freed blacks had to be clarified

state the 3 phases of reconstruction

first phase- Presidential Reconstruction (1863-Spring 1866)

second phase- Congressional Reconstruction (1866-1872)

third phase- The end of Reconstruction (1872-1877)

what is presidential reconstruction?

President Lincoln and his successor, Andrew Johnson, believed that the South should be restored to the Union quickly, with as few penalties as possible

what was Lincoln’s 10% Plan

Lincoln insisted that the war was mere rebellion and that the Southern states had never left the Union. He proposed to treat the Southern states without bitterness and wanted to restore them to full and equal status within the Union.

his plan provided for:

a pardon for all Southerners who took an oath of loyalty to the Union, except for high leaders of the Confederacy

recognition by the Prez of any state gov established by 10% of the voters as of 1860, if the state accepted the abolition of slavery and repudiated the principle of secession

what would Lincoln’s plan look like in practice?

each Southern state would be required to rewrite its state constitution to eliminate the existence of slavery.

why was Lincoln’s plan so lenient?

designed to shorten the war and to give added weight to his Emancipation Proclamation. Lincoln feared that if the Democrats won the Election of 1864, they would overturn the proclamation

what was the Republicans in Congress’ reaction to the 10% Plan?

Many Repubs in Cong objected to Lincoln’s 10% Plan, arguing that it would allow a supposedly reconstructed state gov to fall under the dominion of disloyal secessionists

what did Congress propose instead of the 10% Plan?

Congress passed the Wade-Davis Bill in 1864, which required 50% of the voters of a state to take a loyalty oath and permitted only non-Confederates to vote for a new state Constitution

Lincoln refused to sign the bill, pocket-vetoing it after Congress adjourned

Freedmen’s Bureau (1865)

In March 1865, Congress created an important new agency: the Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands, better known as the Freedmen’s Bureau

what did the Freedmen’s Bureau act as?

acted as a kind of early welfare agency

provided food, shelter and medical aid for those made destitute by the war -both blacks (chiefly freed slaves) and poor whites-

Freedmen’s Bureau related

how were the efforts to resettle free blacks on confiscated farmlands?

the efforts to resettle free blacks on confiscated farmlands in the South were complicated when President Johnson pardoned Confederate owners of these lands

what was the Freedmen’s Bureau’s greatest success?

education. under the leadership of General Oliver O. Howard, it helped to establish 3,000 schools for freed blacks along with several black colleges.

before federal funding was stopped in 1870, the bureau’s schools taught an estimated 200,000 African Americans how to read

what did Lincoln encourage in his last public address?

on April 11, 1865, Lincoln encourages northerners to accept Louisiana as a reconstructed state

Lincoln’s last address related

debates on how Lincoln would have handled Reconstruction had he lived.

while neither the Lincoln nor the Johnson plans called for recognition for the rights of blacks, or for giving them the vote, some believe that his last speech suggested that. he probably would have moved closer to the position taken by the progressive, or Radical Republicans.

identify Andrew Johnson

Johnson was the only senator from a Confederate state who remained loyal to the Union. After Tennessee was occupied by Union troops, he was appointed that state’s war governor.

was a southern democrat but republicans picked him to be Lincoln’s running mate to encourage pro-Union Democrats to vote for the Republican (Union) Party

why was Andrew Johnson the wrong man for the job?

As a white supremacist, the new president was bound to clash with Republicans in Congress who believed that the war was fought not just to preserve the Union but also to liberate blacks from slavery

what was Johnson’s Plan?

May 1865, Johnson issued his own Reconstruction plan. was very similar to Lincoln’s 10% Plan. The prez retained the power to grant individual pardons and as a result, many former Confederate leaders were back in office by Fall of 1865

Southern governments of 1865

just 8 months after Johnson took office, all 11 of the ex-Confederate states qualified under Johnson’s Reconstruction plan

the southern states drew up constitutions that repudiated secession, negated the debts of the Confederacy and ratified the 13th Amendment abolishing slavery

none of the new constitutions extended voting rights to blacks

to the dismay of Republicans, former Confederate leaders were elected to seats in Congress

Congress rejects Presidential Reconstruction

when Congress met in Dec 1865, it rejected Johnson’s plan and refused to seat the Southern delegation and withheld recognition of the new state govs

Black Codes

southern state legislatures adopted Black Codes that restricted the rights and movements of the newly freed African-Americans

give examples of Black Codes

codes varied in severity from state to state but most:

prohibited blacks from either renting the land or borrowing money to buy land

placed freedmen into a form of semi-bondage by forcing them, as “vagrants” and “apprentices” to sign work contracts

prohibited blacks from testifying against whites in court

Johnson’s Vetoes

Johnson alienated even moderate Republicans when in early 1866 vetoed 2 important bills

a bill increasing the services and protections offered by the Freedmen’s Bureau

a civil rights bill that nullified the Black Codes and guaranteed full citizenship and equal rights to blacks

The Congressional Elections of 1866

unable to work with Congress, Johnson took to the road in Fall of 1866 in his infamous “swing around the circle” to attack his congressional opponents.

his speeches appealed to the racial prejudices of whites by arguing that equal rights for blacks would result in an “Africanised” society

Republican propaganda fought back branding the entire Democratic party a party of rebellion and treason with more than a two-thirds majority in both the House and Senate

Congressional Reconstruction

the Congressional Plan of Reconstruction was harsher to the South than Lincoln or Johnson’s plan

Radical Republicans

there had been long division in Republican ranks between moderates, who were chiefly concerned with economic gains for the white middle class, and radicals, who championed civil rights for blacks

although most Republicans were moderates, they shifted toward the radical position in 1866 partly out of fear that a reunified Democratic party might become dominant

Radical Republican Leaders

the leading Radical Republican in the Senate was Charles Sumner of Massachusetts and in the House was Thaddeus Stevens of Pennsylvania

others, including Benjamin Wade of Ohio, endorsed other liberal causes: women’s suffrage, rights for labour unions, and civil rights for northern blacks

aims of the Radical Republicans

the leaders of the dominant group in Congress intended to:

restore the powers of Congress, which had been overshadowed by those of the President during the war

punish Southern leaders

maintain Republican supremacy in Congress by keeping Southern Democrats out as long as possible

protect the rights of freed blacks against abuse by Southern whites

enacting the Radical program

Congress prevailed in enacting Reconstruction legislation, despite Johnson’s vetoes

enacting the Radical program

The Freedmen’s Bureau

in 1866, the Bureau’s powers were extended, over Johnson’s veto. The Bureau gave food, clothing and medicine to poverty-stricken blacks and whites, and helped them rent land and find jobs

enacting the Radical program

the Civil Rights Act of 1866

in 1866, Congress passed the Civil Rights Act, over Johnson’s veto. It gave citizenship to blacks and guaranteed them equal treatment under the law. Republicans feared, however, that the law could be repealed if the Democrats ever won control of Congress. they therefore looked for a more permanent solution in the form of a constitutional amendment

enacting the Radical program

Fourteenth Amendment

late in 1866, Congress passed and sent to the states an amendment that, when ratified in 1868, was to have both immediate and long-term significance for all segments of American society. The amendment:

declared that all persons born or naturalised in the United States were citizens

obligated the states to respect the rights of U.S. citizens and provide them with “equal protection of the laws” and “due process of law”

other parts of the Fourteenth Amendment applied specifically to Congress’ plan of Reconstruction. these clauses:

disqualified dormer Confederate political leaders from holding either state or federal offices

repudiated the debts of the defeated government of the Confederacy

penalised a state if it kept any eligible person from voting by reducing that state’s proportional representation in COngress and the electoral college

Reconstruction Acts of 1867 (Military Reconstruction)

over Johnson’s vetoes, Congress (angered by the rejection of the 14th Amendment by 10 Southern states) passed 3 Reconstruction Acts in early 1867, which took drastic steps of placing the South under military occupation.

what did the Military Reconstruction Acts provide for?

the ten “unreconstructed” states were to be divided into 5 military districts, each under the supervision of an army general, who was to act as military governor

to gain readmission into the Union each Southern state was required to:

1. call a new constitutional convention elected by universal male suffrage

2. establish a state constitution and a government which guaranteed black voting rights and disqualified former Confederate leaders from voting to ratify the 14th Amendment

readmission of the Southern states

by the end of 1868, 7 Southern states had complied with the conditions of Congress and were readmitted to the Union

Mississippi, Texas and Virginia did not go along immediately; they were readmitted in 1870, by which time they were rewquired to accept the 15th as well as the 14th

upon readmission, the military governors turned over the administration of government to new state and local officials.

hwvr, federal troops continued to be stationed in the Southern states for several years

the impeachment of Andrew Johnson

from the beginning of his prez, a feud developed betw Congress and Johnson. Radical Republican leaders who opposed Johnson’s proposals for lenient treatment of the South, were angered by his vetoes and distrusted him as a Southern Democrat before the Civil War. the feud climaxed with Johnson’s impeachment

The Tenure of Office Act (1867)

passed by Congress (over Johnson’s veto) to restrict Johnson’s powers and lay the groundwork for possible later impeachment

the Act prohibited the Prez from removing government officials without the consent of the Senate. Johnson declared the act unconstitutional

Johnson removes Stanton

in 1868, Johnson removed his Secretary of War, edwin Stanton, from the Cabinet. Stanton had opposed Johnson’s Reconstruction policies and consistently sided with the Prez Radical Republican opponents

Impeachment of Johnson

The House of Reps immediately passed a resolution calling for the President’s impeachment for “high crimes and misdemeanors in office.” Chief Justice Salmon P. Chase presided at the trial before the Senate in 1868

Johnson’s acquittal

Johnson was found not guilty of the charges, after 2 months of debate, during which time it became evident that there was no clear legal ground for his removal. Despite the weakness of the case against him, Johnson was narrowly acquitted. the vote was just one short

decline in influence of the Radical Republicans

the attack of the radical repubs on johnson, as well as other policies, began to then public opinion against them

made evident in the Presidential election of 1868 by the comparatively small majority of the popular vote won by the Repub candidate, Ulysses S. Grant.

even the most moderate Repubs bega to realise that the voting rights of freedmen needed federal protection, if their party hoped to keep control of the White House in future elections

reforms after Grant’s election

in the election of 1868 the Dems nominated Horatio Seymour, so the Johnson presidency would have ended in any case

the Repubs nominated Ulysses S. Grant, even tho he had no political experience

fifteenth amendment

Republican majorities in Congress acted quickly in 1869 to secure the vote for African Americans. Congress passed the 15th Amendment which prohibited any state from denying or abridging a citizen’s right to vote “on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude.”

Civil Rights Act of 1875

law guaranteed equal accommodations in public places such as hotels, railroads, theatres and prohibited courts from excluding African Americans from juries. law was poorly enforced bc atp moderate and conservative repubs had become frustrated with trying to reform an unwilling south and were afraid of losing white votes in the north

reconstruction in the south

during congressional reconstruction, the republican party in the south reorganised and dominated the gov of ex-Confederate states. beginning in 1867, each Republican-controlled government was under the military protection of the U.S. Army until such time as Cong was satisfied that a state had met its Reconstruction requirements. then the troops were withdrawn

composition of the Reconstruction governments

in every Republican state gov in the South except one, whites were in the majority in both houses of the legislatures (except in SC)

Republican legislatures included native-born white southerners, freedmen and recently arrived northerners

“scalawags”

they called southern Republicans “scalawags“ meaning scoundrel. Southern whites who supported the Republican govs were usually former Whigs who were interested in economic development for their state and peace betw the sections

“carpetbaggers”

Northern newcomers were called “carpetbaggers.” Northerners went South after the war for various reasons. many “carpetbaggers” were undoubtedly unscrupulous and self-seeking, but they did include people of integrity with humanitarian and idealistic instincts

African American Legislators

most of the blacks who held elective office in the reconstructed state gov were educated property holders who took moderate positions on most issues

during the Reconstruction era, Republicans in the South set 2 black senators and more than a dozen black reps in Cong. The fact that blacks and former slaves were in positions of power in the South caused bitter resentment among disenfranchised ex-Confederates

the record of Reconstruction govs

accomplishments

established and expanded free public school systems

built needed roads, bridges and other public facilities

provided various forms of aid for the needy and handicapped

reorganised and improved local govs, courts and tax systems

the record of Reconstruction govs

weaknesses

sometimes guilty of extravagance and corruption- dishonest officials handed out favours in return for bribes, looted state treasuries and squandered large sums of money on questionable projects

taxes rose rapidly

African American adjust to freedom under difficult circumstances

the groups of Southerners who had to make the greatest adjustment to make during Reconstruction era were the freedmen and women. Having been so recently emancipated from slavery, they were faced with the challenge of securing their economic survival as well as their political rights

building black communities

freedom meant many things to Southern blacks: reuniting families, learning to read and write, migrating to cities and frontier and the opportunity for achieving independence from white control.

drive for independence was evident in the founding of hundreds of independent black churches after the war. ministers became leaders in the black community

growth of tenant farming and sharecropping

southern planters rented land to tenant farmers in return for a fixed money rental

under the system of sharecropping, the owner provided the land, fertiliser, seed, tools farm animals and cabin

the “cropper” furnished the labour. at the end of the season the owner took a fixed share of the crop; what remained, and it was often very little, belonged to the sharecropper

farm tenancy and sharecropping provided and immediate and needed solution to the main agricultural problem facing the South after the Civil War- the necessity of getting the land back under cultivation

in post-Reconstruction years, hwvr, farm tenancy and sharecropping had harmful effects on both the South and the nation. most tenant and sharecroppers were forced to borrow at high interest rates from store-owners and therefore remained permanently in debt

under the crop lein system they pledged their crops as security. since merchants and moneylenders insisted that the farmers grow cotton. this led to soil exhaustion and the sharecroppers became one of the most poverty-stricken groups in the nation. they were poorly housed and fed, debt-ridden, uneducated and lacking incentive. by 1890, only 5% of southern blacks became independent landowners

became new form of servitude

white supremacy and Ku Klux Klan

during the period that Republican controilled state govs in the south, groups of southern whites organised various secret societies to intimidate blacks and white reformers

most prominent of these was the Ku Klux Klan, founded in 1867 by an ex-Confederate general, Nathaniel Beford Forrest

the “invisible empire” burned black-owned buildings and flogged and murdered freedmen to keep them from exercising their voting rights

in 1870, congress passed the Force Acts to stop the worst of the violence and to enforce the 14th and 15th amendments (had little effect)

the restriction of black rights

tho they were forced to recognise the freedom of blacks, most Southern whites were not willing to recognise his political, social, or economic equality

they also feared that blacks would support the Republican Party if allowed to vote freely

Northerners were tired of the war and its aftermath

they were more concerned with industrialisation nad developing the West than with securing the rights of blacks

a pattern of segregation and discrimination developed in the South toward the end of the 19th century

restriction of black rights

poll taxes

called for the payment in advance of a small fee, in order to vote. most blacks (and poor whites) could not afford to pay the tax)

restriction of black rights

literacy tests

became a part of the requirements for voting. would-be voters had to show that they could read, write and interpret the state constitution. the tests for blacks were made difficult enough to exclude them from the polls

restriction of black rights

“grandfather clauses”

added to state constitutions to protect poor whites from discrimination aimed at blacks. these gave the right to vote to all persons whose fathers or grandfathers could vote in 1867, even if such persons could not meet other voting requirements . such clauses were not declared unconstitutional till 1915

restriction of black rights

“Jim Crow Laws”

after 1890, Jim Crow laws provided for the segregation of blacks in education, housing, travel and recreation

cemented by landmark case Plessy v. Ferguson which allowed for “separate but equal” institutions

not until the mid 20th cent did the Supreme Court declare these laws unconstitutional

an era of public and private corruption

during the Reconstruction Era, a low tone of public morality characterised the nation as a whole. National economic expansion was accompanied by widespread graft and corruption

an era of public and private corruption

national scandals

Ulysses S. Grant succeeded Andrew Johnson as president and served 2 terms

Grant had a brilliant record as leader of the Union armies and was honest, well-meaning and popular

failed to provide strong leadership as prez and is regarded one of the least effective prez

an era of public and private corruption

the “Black Friday” scandal

Early in his first term, Grant foolishly allowed himself to be influenced by two financial speculators, Jay Gould and James Fisk.  In their efforts to corner the gold market and make huge profits, Gould and Fisk persuaded the President to change the gold-selling policies of the U.S. Treasury.  The episode led to a stock market collapse on “Black Friday” September 24, 1869.  Many innocent persons, including financiers, businessmen, and workers suffered as a result.  A Congressional investigation showed that Grant had done nothing illegal or dishonorable, but many felt that he had been guilty of irresponsibility and poor judgment.

an era of public and private corruption

the Credit Mobilier Scandal

This came to light during Grant’s second term (1873) although the scandal had its origin before Grant took office.  It involved the construction of the Union Pacific Railroad (completed in 1869), which had received large-scale government assistance.  Credit Mobilier, the company that built the railroad, had enjoyed extremely favorable treatment from Congress and had earned huge profits.  It was revealed that insiders gave stock to influential members of Congress as a “gift.”  Moreover, an attempt was made in Congress to block investigation of these suspicious dealings.

an era of public and private corruption

the “Whiskey Ring” Scandals

These involved several public officials, including Grant appointees and his private secretary.  They were found guilty of having helped a ring of whiskey distillers to defraud the government of millions of dollars in taxes.

scandals in state gov

 One famous and typical scandal involved the financiers Daniel Drew, Jay Gould and James Fisk, who bribed many members of the New York State Legislature in order to obtain favors for the Erie Railroad, which they controlled. 

municipal corruption

 Corruption in municipal, or city governments, was worst of all.  Most notorious was the political organization in New York City, known as the Tweed Ring.  Through his political machine, Tammany Hall. “Boss” William Tweed (boss of the local Democratic party) controlled the government of New York City throughout the 1860s.  Tweed and his henchmen sold jobs, franchises, charters, and handed out lucrative contracts to friends.  The Tweed Ring masterminded dozens of schemes for helping himself and his cronies to large chunks of graft.  The Tweed Ring virtually stole about $200 million from New York’s taxpayers before the New York Times and the cartoonist Thomas Nast exposed “Boss” Tweed and brought about his arrest and imprisonment in 1871.

the end of reconstruction - During Grant’s 2nd term

With Radical Republicanism on the wane, southern conservatives - known as Redeemers - took control of one state government after another.  This process was completed by 1877.  The Redeemers had different social and economic backgrounds, but they agreed on their political program: states’ rights, reduced taxes, reducing spending on social programs, and white supremacy.

the end of Reconstruction

home rule restored to the South

• White supremacy was gradually restored in the South between 1871-1876.  “Carpetbag” legislatures in the South were replaced by white Southern Democrats.  The withdrawal of federal troops from the South in 1877 by President Rutherford B. Hayes (R) marked the official end of Reconstruction. A number of factors led to the restoration of white supremacy:

  • Most blacks did not vote

  • The influence of Radical Republicans declined, while a more tolerant “Liberal Republican” movement gained in power

    • The Amnesty Act of 1872 restored political privileges to thousands of ex-Confederates, with the exception of top leaders

the Solid South

the attempt of the Radical Republicans to develop support for the Republican party in the south by granting suffrage to blacks backfired

white Southerners were so bitter at Congressional and “carpetbag” Reconstruction that they voted solidly Democratic for more than 50 years

“Solid South” is used to describe the solid support traditionally given to the Democratic Party in the Southern states

disputed election of 1876

By 1876, federal troops had been withdrawn from all but three southern states - South Carolina, Florida, and Louisiana.  The Democrats had returned to power in all ex-Confederate states except these.  This fact was to play a critical role in the presidential election.

compromise of 1877

• an informal deal was worked out between the parties.  Hayes would become president on the condition that he would:

  • Immediately end federal support for the Republicans in the South

  • Support the building of a southern transcontinental railroad

  • Shortly after his inauguration, President Hayes fulfilled his part of the Compromise of 1877.  He promptly withdrew the last of the federal troops protecting blacks and other Republicans.