All of psychology

Lorenz (1930) - Results

Investigated imprinting on geese. His study backs Bowlby’s Monotropic Theory

• Found that goslings have had to imprint within 16 hours or no attachment would be formed (critical period).

• Found that goslings made one special bond (monotropy)

• Found that goslings’ drive to form attachments was innate (attachment is innate).

Lorenz (1930) - Procedure

1. Divided a clutch of goose eggs in half

2. Allowed half to hatch in the presence of their mother in natural environment

3. The other half hatched in an incubator and Lorenz was the first moving thing they saw

4. Recorded all gosling behaviour

Lorenz (1930) - Conclusions on human attachment

. Attachment may be innate in humans

. There may be a critical period for attachments to be formed

Harlow (1958) - Results

Investigated attachment in monkeys using a wire mother and a cloth mother. His study backs Bowlby’s Monotropic Theory.

• Found monkeys spent 1hour with wire mother and 17hours with cloth mother per day.

• The monkeys also went to the cloth mother for comfort in new environments - secure base behaviour (monotropy).

• The monkeys also abused and killed their offspring later on (Internal working model)

Harlow (1958) - Procedure

• Monkeys raised with a wire mother and cloth mother

• Wire mother provided food, cloth mother provided comfort

• Recorded the time spent with each mother

• Observed and recorded the monkey’s behaviour indifferent fear conditions

Harlow (1958) - Conclusions on human attachment

• Comfort is more important than food in attachment formation

• Attachment figures promote curiosity and exploitative behaviour

• Early attachments form basis of future attachments

Bowlby

Monotropic Theory of Attachment

• Monotropy

• Critical period

• Social releasers

• Attachment is innate

• Internal working model

Monotropy

Infants form one special, primary attachment (usually to their mother) which is more important for the child’s emotional development

Critical period

A period of time in which attachments must be formed. If attachments aren’t formed within this period, attachments child may not be able to form any other attachments in the future (or will find great difficulty in doing so). The critical period for humans is 2.5 years

Social releasers

Innate behaviours or features that activate the attachment system in adults, triggering caregiving responses

Attachment is innate

Human attachment behaviours are the product of natural selection due to it serving a survival purpose

Internal working model (IWM)

A cognitive framework helping children to understand relationships, thus forming the foundation for all the child’s future relationships. The child’s relationship with their primary caregiver allows for the formation of the IWM.

Tronick et al.

Still face experiment - Evidence of social releasers

Bailey et al. (2007)

Assessed the relationships between 99 mothers and their infants and the relationships between the 99 mothers and their mothers - Evidence of IWM

Learning Theory of attachment

Suggests that babies form attachments due to them associating mothers (or other primary caregivers) with food

Classical conditioning

Learning through association

Operant conditioning

Learning through consequences

How is positive reinforcement used in the formation of attachment between mother and child?

The baby cries, the mum gives baby food. The baby has been rewarded so the baby is more likely to cry when hungry

How is negative reinforcement used in the formation of attachment between mother and child?

Mum feeds baby, baby stops crying. Something negative has been stopped so mum is more likely to feed the baby in the future

Does animal research support learning theory?

No

• Lorenz’s study suggests that attachments are innate, not the product of learning

• Harlow’s study revealed monkey’s preferred comfort over food suggesting that comfort is more valuable in attachment forming

Schaffer and Emerson

The Glasgow Babies Study - Observed 60 babies monthly and found the baby’s primary attachment not to be the person who fed the baby in around half the cases. Sensitive responses seem to be more important.

Isabella et al. (1989)

Studied 30 mothers and their infants and found that higher interactional synchrony was associated with stronger attachment

Interactional synchrony

A form of caregiver-infant interaction where the mother and infant reflect each other’s actions and emotions in a coordinated and rhythmic way

Ainsworth et al (1970s)

The strange Situation - A procedure developed in order to assess and test attachment by putting a child through 8 “episodes” which test different aspects of attachment relationships

Led to the agreement of 3 main attachment types: Secure, insecure avoidant, insecure ambivalent/resistant

Secure attachment

Caregiver: warm response and provides comfort

IWM: child learns that in times of need, the caregiver will respond by providing comfort

Attachment behaviour: secure base behaviour and actively seeks out caregiver

Insecure avoidant attachment

Caregiver: rejects child and responds with annoyance when child attempts to seek comfort

IWM: child learns that caregiver will not provide emotional support in times of need

Attachment behaviour: child avoids caregiver and avoids displaying negative emotions in their presence

Insecure ambivalent/resistant

Caregiver: inconsistent and may prioritise their own emotional needs

IWM: child learns that attention is valuable but can be unreliable in its quality

Attachment behaviour: reacts with intense displays of negative emotion when in need of comfort to overcompensate. However, the child is cautious to seek or sustain the comfort they crave (seek and reject behaviour)

Kokkinos (2007)

Found that the attachment type of a child predicted peer relations in elementary school:

• Secure attachment = Good relationships ( neither bully nor victim)

• Insecure avoidant attachment = More likely to be a bully

• Insecure ambivalent/resistant = More likely to be a victim of bullying

This means the strange situation has good predictive validity

Bick et al. (2012)

Found that observers agreed on infants’ attachment types 94% of the time which suggests that the strange situation is a highly reliable measure

The fourth attachment type

Disorganised attachment - A child who does not have a consistent response to stress. They display both avoidant and ambivalent behvaiours

What is cultural bias in reference to The Strange Situation

The Strange Situation was designed and tested in the USA. This means it may not be appropriate to use to assess attachments in other cultures, where they may have other rearing practices.

Main and Solomon (1986)

Revisited tapes from Ainsworth’s original research and the proposed a fourth attachment style: disorganised attachment

Separation

Being physically apart from mother

Deprivation

An element of maternal care is lost

What did Bowlby state that deprivation during one’s critical period would cause?

Inevitable and irreversible psychological damage

The effects of deprivation

• Inability to form attachments later in life

• Delinquency

• Cognitive deficit

• Affectionless psychopathy

Characteristics of psychopathy

• Impulsivity and thrill seeking

• Lack of empathy towards others

• Narcissism

• Glibness (superficial charm)

Bowlby’s 44 thieves study(1944)

44 thieves

• 14 affectionless psychopaths

• 30 NOT affectionless psychopaths

• 12/14 (85%) psychopaths had experienced maternal deprivation

• 5/30 (15%) non-psychopaths had experienced maternal deprivation

What does the cognitive approach to depression suggest

Depression may be the result of faulty thinking

The two cognitive models of depression

• Beck’s negative triad

• Albert Ellis’ ABC model

Beck’s Negative Triad

• Negative view of the self

• Negative view of the world

• Negative view of the future

Negative schema

Negative packets of information which may have formed due to childhood trauma

Schema

Packets of information about how the world works

Albert Ellis

ABC Model

Beck

Negative Triad

ABC Model - Depression

Cognitive approach to depression

1. Activating event

2. Beliefs

3. Consequences

CBT

Cognitive Behavioural Therapy

Reactive depression

A type of depression caused by a specific external event, and its symptoms are closely linked to that stressful event

Endogenous depression

A type of depression thought to result from biological/genetic factors rather than external stressors. There is no obvious activating event

Monoamines

Serotonin

Dopamine

Noradrenaline

Arguments used in CBT

1. Logical argument

2. Empirical argument

3. Pragmatic argument

These are used to identify and distribute irrational thoughts in CBT

Methods used in CBT

• Therapeutic alliance

• Establishing a time line

• Mirroring/reflecting

• The 3 argument types

• Homework

• Behavioural activation

Role of Homework

Client is given a task which will help the client objectively assess the validity of their irrational beliefs, just like a scientist. The homework can then be used by the therapist as evidence against the clients’ irrational thoughts

Role of behavioural activation

Client is encouraged to go out and continue doing the things they love. the more the client goes out, the more opportunities for positive events. This can be used by the therapist as evidence against irrational thoughts

Serotonin

• Controls mood, sleep, appetite, and emotion

• Low levels of this is linked to low mood, irritability, irregular eating patterns, and negative thinking patterns

• Controls other neurotransmitters

Noradrenaline(Norepinephrine)

• Involved in alertness, energy, attention, as well as the body’s stress response (“fight or flight”)

• low levels of this linked to fatigue, lack of concentration, sluggishness or demotivation.

Dopamine (depression)

• Controls motivation, reward, and pleasure

• Low levels of this is linked to anhedonia(inability to feel pleasure), and the loss of motivation

Antidepressants

Biological drug therapies that alter the levels of neurotransmitters in the brain to improve mood and reduce depressive symptoms

Behavioural characteristic

the behaviours that characterise the disorder

Emotional characteristic

the subjective emotions that are likely to be felt by someone with the disorder

Cognitive characteristic

the impact someone might experience on their thoughts and/or cognitive(mental) processes like memory and attention, due to the disorder

Specific phobias

fear of a specific object or thing

Social phobias

fear of social situations. e.g. public speaking

Statistical infrequency

a definition of abnormality that states that behaviours or characteristics that are statistically rare or uncommon within the general population are abnormal

Deviation form social norms

a definition of abnormality that states that behaviours that violate the standards of behaviour set by a society are abnormal

Failure to function adequately

a definition of abnormality that states that a person who is unable to cope with the demands of everyday life can be deemed as abnormal

Deviation from ideal mental health

a definition of abnormality that states that someone who failst to meet the criteria for ideal mental health can be deemed as abnormal

Definitions of abnormality

Statistical infrequency

Deviation from social norms

Failure to function adequately

Deviation from ideal mental health

Jahoda’s ideal mental health criteria

1. Positive attitude towards the self

2. Self-actualisation

3. Autonomy

4. Resistance to stress

5. Environmental mastery

6. Accurate perception of reality

Rosenhan and Seligman (1995)

Failure to function adequately - Suggest that the concept of dysfunction includes:

1. Personal distress

2. Maladaptive behaviour

3. Unpredictability and loss of control

4. Irrationality and incomprehensibility

5. Vividness and unconventionality

6. Observer discomfort

7. Violation of moral or ideal standards

The behavioural approach (Phobias)

• People are a product of their experiences

• We learn through classical and operant conditioning

Mowrer (1960)

Two-process Model:

• Phobias acquired through classical conditioning

• Phobias maintained through operant conditioning

Classical conditioning

Learning through association

Operant conditioning

Learning through consequences

Phobia

An anxiety disorder characterised by excessive fear and anxiety in response to an object or situation

Specific phobia

Fear of a s specific object or situation

Social phobia

Fear of social situations

Positive reinorcement

Adding something to encourage/increase behaviour

Positive punishment

Adding something to decrease/discourage behaviour

Negative reinforcement

Taking something away to increase/encourage behaviour

Negative punishment

Taking something away to decrease/discourage behaviour

ABC Model used to explain phobic behaviour

Antecedent

Behaviour

Consequence

A in ABC model

Antecedent - What happens before the behaviour (trigger or cue)

B in ABC model

Behaviour - The observable action (e.g. avoiding phobic stimulus)

C in ABC model

Consequence - What happens after the behaviour (e.g. anxiety is reduced after avoiding phobic stimulus which is negative reinforcement)

Schedules of reinforcement

• Regular (continuous)

• Erratic (partial)

What is the aim of behavioural therapies?

Counterconditioning - change a previously learnt fear response into a newly learnt relaxation response

What is meant by ‘extinction’ in reference to behavioural treatments

The weakening or disappearance of a learned fear when the phobic stimulus is repeatedly experienced without any negative outcome.

Reciprocal inhibition

The inability to be frightened and relaxed at the same time

In vitro

Imagined

In vivio

Real

The two behavioural treatments for phobias

Systematic desensitisation (SD) and Flooding

Systematic Desensitisation

A behavioural treatment for phobias that involves gradual exposure to a clients phobic stimulus until their fear is extinct with the use of relaxation techniques

Gilroy et al. (2003) - Procedure

• Sample of 42 arachnophobes

• Arachnophobes randomly allocated to either SD group who participated in 45 minute SD sessions and an only relaxation therapy group

• Patients were assessed at 3 months and 33 months after treatment

Gilroy et al. (2003) - Results

• SD group showed significant reduction in spider phobia symptoms compared to the relaxation group

• Improvements were maintained up to and past 33 months

Gilroy et al. (2003) - Conclusions

• SD is an effective long-term treatment for specific phobias

• Supports the behavioural approach

Flooding

A behavioural treatment for phobias that involves immediate and intense exposure to a client’s phobic stimulus until their fear response is extinguished, with the use of relaxation techniques

Wolpe (1970)

Drove a girl with a phobia of cars around for 4 hours. The girl was initially afraid but eventually calmed down. and her phobia disappeared

How many sessions does SD normally last?

6-8 sessions

Why are behavioural treatments ineffective on social phobias?

Social phobias often have a cognitive element to them. Behavioural treatments do not address this