Social Psychology Mid Term 2

Functions of the Self

The four main functions served by the self are: Self-knowledge (the way we understand who we are and organize this information); Self-control (the way we make plans and execute decisions); Impression management (the way we present ourselves to others and get them to see us as we want to be seen); and Self-esteem (the way we maintain positive views of ourselves).

Conceptions of the Self Across Cultures

In many Western cultures, people have an independent view of the self, defining themselves as quite separate from other people and valuing independence and uniqueness. In contrast, many Asian and other non-Western cultures have an interdependent view of the self, where connectedness and interdependence are valued, and independence and uniqueness are frowned on.

Self-Awareness Theory (Emotional and Behavioral Consequences)

Self-Awareness involves focusing attention on the self, which allows us to compare our current behavior against our internal standards and values. This focus is situational. When the comparison reveals discrepancies, the results can be aversive, sometimes leading people to attempt to escape the self through behaviors like alcohol abuse or binge eating. Self-focus is not always damaging; it can be pleasant if a major success has just occurred, or useful in keeping a person out of trouble by reminding them of their sense of right and wrong.

Introspection

The process of looking inward and examining one's thoughts and motives. However, research indicates that introspection does not always yield accurate results because the reasons for feelings and behavior can be hidden from conscious awareness. For example, studies found that college students were often inaccurate in estimating how variables like weather or workload affected their mood.

Intrinsic Motivation

Engaging in a task because of enjoyment or internal reasons.

Extrinsic Motivation

Engaging in a task for external reasons.

Overjustification Effect

The phenomenon where external justification (e.g., rewards) can often undermine internal interest (intrinsic motivation). This effect can be avoided if the initial interest in the task was high, and if the type of reward given is performance-contingent rather than task-contingent.

Task-Contingent Rewards

Rewards that are given simply for performing a task, regardless of how well the task is done.

Performance-Contingent Rewards

Rewards that are based on how well we perform a task. These might do better than task-contingent rewards in maintaining intrinsic interest.

Schacter and Singer’s Two-Factor Theory of Emotion

Emotional experience is the result of a two-step self-perception process: 1. People first experience physiological arousal, and 2. They then seek an appropriate explanation for that arousal.

Misattribution of Arousal

Making mistaken inferences about what is causing feelings. Arousal stemming from one source (e.g., caffeine, exercise, or a fright) can enhance the intensity of how the person interprets other feelings (e.g., attraction to someone).

Social Comparison Theory

The theory that we use the opinions and abilities of others to evaluate ourselves, usually when there is an absence of objective social reality.

Upward Social Comparison

Comparing oneself to people who are better on a particular ability, typically with the motive of knowing the furthest level to which we can aspire.

Downward Social Comparison

Comparing oneself to people who are worse on a particular trait or ability, typically with the motive of feeling better about oneself.

Self-Handicapping

Creating obstacles or ready-made excuses to help maintain a favorable self-image. The two major ways people self-handicap are: 1. Creating obstacles that reduce success likelihood so that failure can be blamed on the obstacle (drugs, alcohol, reduced effort, failing to prepare, e.g., pulling an all-nighter before a test); or 2. Devising ready-made excuses in case of failure (blaming shyness, test anxiety, bad moods, physical symptoms, e.g., claiming illness before a test).

Self-Perception Theory (Daryl Bem)

The theory that people construct their self-definitions by observing their behavior (especially when the situational causes for that behavior are weak or ambiguous). We infer inner feelings from behavior, but only when we are not sure how we feel.

Self-Control

The ability to subdue immediate desires to achieve long-term goals. The Self-Regulatory Resource Model views self-control as a limited resource, like a muscle that gets tired with frequent use but can rebound in strength with practice. People are likely to fail when this resource is depleted.

Fixed Mindset

The idea that we have a set amount of an ability that cannot change (e.g., telling someone, “You are smart”). Individuals with a fixed mindset are more likely to give up and do poorly on subsequent tasks after failure.

Growth Mindset

The idea that our abilities are malleable qualities that we can cultivate and grow (e.g., telling someone, “You worked really hard”).

Theory of Cognitive Dissonance

The feeling of discomfort that arises when we encounter information that is inconsistent with our typically positive self-concept. Dissonance produces discomfort, which increases with the importance of the subject, how strongly the thoughts conflict, and our inability to rationalize the conflict. Strategies we use to reduce dissonance are: 1. Change behavior; 2. Change cognitions; and 3. Add new cognitions.

Lowballing

A technique where a salesperson convinces a customer to buy something for a cheap price, claims it was a mistake, raises the price, and the customer buys it anyway. Lowballing works because of: 1. An existing sense of commitment; 2. That commitment triggers the anticipation of an exciting event; and 3. The final price is only slightly higher than other prices elsewhere.

Justification of Effort

The finding that the more effort we put into becoming members of a group, and the tougher the initiation (e.g., severe initiation), the more we will like the group we have just joined, even if it turns out to be a worthless dud.

Self-Discrepancy Theory

A theory concerning discrepancies between the actual self and the other selves (ideal self and ought self). Discrepancies between the Actual self and the Ought self (beliefs about how one should be) may lead to guilt, fear, shame, and agitation. Discrepancies between the Actual self and the Ideal self (hopes and wishes for oneself) may lead to disappointment, sadness, dissatisfaction, and dejection.

Rationalization Trap

The idea that the need to maintain self-esteem causes us to rationalize our behavior. People may seek valid justification for holding a negative attitude toward an out-group to avoid cognitive dissonance and still feel like a non-bigot, thus allowing them to act against that group. It can be avoided if we tolerate dissonance long enough to examine the situation critically.

Self-Affirmation (and the Rationalization Trap)

Reducing dissonance by adding a cognition about other positive attributes in order to bolster the self-concept (e.g., a smoker who fails to quit rationalizes, "I'm not smart for smoking, but I’m a very good mathematician"). Seeking justification is a way to maintain a positive self-concept (as a non-bigot) and avoid the cognitive dissonance of the rationalization trap.

Insufficient Punishment and Self-Persuasion

Insufficient punishment is the dissonance aroused when individuals lack sufficient external justification for having resisted a desired activity or object. If the threat of punishment is less severe, there is insufficient external justification, which creates a greater need for internal justification. This results in self-persuasion (e.g., devaluing the forbidden activity or object), which leads to lasting attitude change.

The Ben Franklin Effect

The phenomenon where we are likely to feel more positively toward people we do favors for than toward people who do favors for us.

Relevance of Dissonance to Self-Evaluation Maintenance (SEM) Theory

The Self-Evaluation Maintenance Theory states that our self-concept can be threatened by another person’s behavior. This threat depends on how close we are to the individual and how relevant the behavior is to our own self-esteem. We reduce the resulting dissonance by distancing ourselves from the person or changing how relevant the task is to our self-esteem.

Prejudice and its Three Components

Prejudice is an attitude composed of three components: 1. Affective (emotional) component (the type and extremity of emotion linked with the attitude, e.g., anger, warmth); 2. Behavioral component (Discrimination) (how people act on emotions and cognitions); and 3. Cognitive component (Stereotypes) (the beliefs or thoughts that make up the attitude).

Stereotypes (Functions and Development)

Stereotypes are the beliefs or thoughts that make up the cognitive component of prejudice. The term, first introduced by Walter Lippmann (1922), described them as “the little pictures we carry around inside our heads”. Stereotyping is a cognitive process used as a technique to simplify our world; we act as "cognitive misers" who take shortcuts. Stereotypes are adaptive when they accurately identify group attributes, but maladaptive when they blind us to individual differences.

Problem with Positive Stereotypes

Positive stereotypes are problematic because they deny the individuality of the person. For example, they ignore the fact that plenty of African American kids are not adept at basketball.

Measuring Implicit Prejudice (Unobtrusive Measures)

Because most people do not want to admit their prejudices, unobtrusive measures are necessary. These include: 1. Bogus Pipeline: Participants, believing a "lie detector" could detect their true attitudes, were more likely to express racist attitudes; and 2. Implicit Attitudes Test (IAT): Measures the speed of positive and negative reactions to target groups.

Stereotype Threat

The apprehension experienced by members of a group that their behavior might confirm a cultural stereotype. This can manifest as worrying that performing poorly on a test will reflect badly on one’s race.

Reducing/Reversing Stereotype Threat

The effects of stereotype threat can be reversed by using an Alternative mindset (e.g., focusing on being a “good student”) or by using Self-affirmation (the practice of reminding oneself of good qualities).

Social Learning Theory (Prejudice)

This theoretical perspective focuses on socialization and norms, asserting that prejudice is learned through sources such as family and peers, media, and society.

Evolutionary Theory of Prejudice

The provided sources do not contain information regarding the definition and explanation of Evolutionary theory in relation to prejudice.

Social Identity Theory

The theory that the desire to achieve and maintain a positive self-image motivates people to favor the in-group over the out-group. Self-esteem is enhanced only if the individual sees their groups as superior to others.

Scapegoat Theory

When people are frustrated or unhappy, they tend to displace aggression onto groups that are disliked, visible, and relatively powerless.

Realistic Group Conflict Theory

Prejudice results from direct competition for limited resources. Prejudiced attitudes increase when times are tough, resources are scarce, and conflict exists over mutually exclusive goals, causing in-group members to feel more threatened by the out-group, leading to an increase in prejudice and violence.

Consequences of Social Categorization

Prejudice is a by-product of how we process and organize information, including our tendency to categorize and group information, form schemas, rely on heuristics, and depend on faulty memory processes. This facilitates both in-group bias and out-group homogeneity.

In-Group Bias

The tendency to favor the in-group over the out-group, even when the reasons for differentiation between groups are minimal. This often manifests as allocating more rewards to in-group members. The major underlying motive is self-esteem.

Out-Group Homogeneity

The tendency for in-group members to perceive out-group members as being more similar (homogeneous) than they really are. This leads to the belief that "They are all alike".

Relevance of Self-Fulfilling Prophecy to Stereotyping and Discrimination

The provided sources do not contain information regarding the relevance of self-fulfilling prophecy to stereotyping and discrimination.

Jigsaw Classroom (Aronson)

A highly effective method for improving race relations, improving empathy, and improving instruction. The jigsaw works because it breaks down the perception of in-group and out-group to create a feeling of “one-ness”. People must do each other “favors” by sharing information (mutual interdependence) and develop empathy for others.

Contact Theory (Conditions for Contact to Work)

Mere contact between groups is not sufficient to reduce prejudice and can sometimes increase conflict. Prejudice will decrease when six necessary conditions are met: 1. Mutual interdependence; 2. Common goal; 3. Equal status; 4. Friendly, informal setting; 5. Knowing multiple out-group members; and 6. Social norms of equality.