Ap European History - People

Humanism Founders

• Francesco Petrarch ("Father of Humanism") - Italian scholar and poet who initiated the Renaissance movement by rediscovering classical texts and promoting human potential

• Erasmus - Dutch scholar who authored "In Praise of Folly," advocated for church reform, and promoted classical education

Renaissance Artists:

• Leonardo da Vinci - Italian polymath known for "Mona Lisa" and "The Last Supper," who excelled in art, science, and engineering

• Michelangelo - Italian sculptor, painter, and architect who created the David statue and painted the Sistine Chapel ceiling

• Raphael - Italian painter famous for his harmonious compositions and "School of Athens" fresco

Renaissance Political Theorists:

• Niccolò Machiavelli - Italian diplomat who wrote "The Prince," advocating pragmatic politics over moral idealism

• Thomas More - English humanist who wrote "Utopia," describing an ideal society and later became Lord Chancellor of England

Renaissance Patrons:

• Medici family (particularly Lorenzo the Magnificent) - Powerful Florentine banking family who financed artists and scholars, transforming Florence into a cultural center

Pre-Reformation:

• John Wycliffe - 14th-century English theologian who translated the Bible into English and challenged church authority

• Jan Hus - Czech reformer who followed Wycliffe's ideas, condemned church corruption, and was burned at the stake

Girolamo Savonarola - Dominican friar who briefly ruled Florence, condemned clerical corruption and luxury, and was executed

Protestant Reformation (1517-1555)

• Martin Luther - German monk who launched the Protestant Reformation in 1517 with his 95 Theses, emphasizing salvation by faith alone

• John Calvin - Systematized Protestant theology and established the Reformed tradition

• Huldrych Zwingli - Led the reformation in Switzerland with a focus on biblical authority

• John Knox - Scottish reformer who established Presbyterianism and opposed Mary, Queen of Scots

Lutheranism Founder:

• Martin Luther - German monk who launched the Protestant Reformation in 1517 with his 95 Theses, emphasizing salvation by faith alone

Calvinism Founder:

• John Calvin - French theologian who developed the doctrine of predestination and established a theocratic government in Geneva

Zwinglianism Founder:

• Huldrych Zwingli - Swiss reformer who led Zurich's reformation and differed with Luther on the meaning of communion

Anabaptism Founders:

• Conrad Grebel - Swiss reformer who performed the first adult baptism, rejecting infant baptism

• Felix Manz - Early Anabaptist leader executed by drowning for practicing adult baptism

Anglicanism Founders:

• Henry VIII - English king who broke from Rome to secure a divorce, establishing himself as head of the Church of England

• Thomas Cranmer - Archbishop of Canterbury who shaped Anglican theology and created the Book of Common Prayer

Catholic/Counter-Reformation (1545-1648):

• Pope Paul III - Convened the Council of Trent and initiated internal church reforms

• St. Teresa of Ávila - Spanish mystic who reformed the Carmelite order and wrote spiritual classics

• St. John of the Cross - Spanish mystic and poet who collaborated with Teresa on Carmelite reforms

• Ignatius of Loyola - Spanish soldier-turned-priest who founded the Jesuit order to defend Catholicism

• Francis Xavier - Jesuit missionary who spread Catholicism to Asia, baptizing thousands

• Carlo Borromeo - Cardinal who implemented Tridentine reforms and served the sick during plague epidemicsEnglish Reformation Figures:

English Reformation Figures:

• Henry VIII - Established the Church of England for political and personal reasons

• Elizabeth I - Created the moderate "Elizabethan Settlement" balancing Protestant and Catholic elements

Hundred Years' War (1337-1453):

• Henry V of England - Led English forces to victory at Agincourt (1415)

• Joan of Arc - French peasant girl whose leadership helped turn the tide against England

• Charles VII of France - King crowned after Joan of Arc's victories

Italian Wars (1494-1559):

• Francis I of France - Renaissance king who fought for control of Italy against the Habsburgs

• Charles V (Holy Roman Emperor) - Habsburg ruler who controlled vast territories across Europe

Thirty Years' War (1618-1648):

• Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden - Protestant champion known for military innovations

• Albrecht von Wallenstein - Imperial general who created a personal army for the Habsburg cause

• Cardinal Richelieu - French statesman who supported Protestants abroad while suppressing them in France

Absolute Monarchs:

• Louis XIV of France - The "Sun King" who centralized power, built Versailles, and claimed "L'état, c'est moi" (I am the state)

• Philip II of Spain - Habsburg king who ruled a global empire and championed Counter-Reformation Catholicism

• Peter the Great of Russia - Tsar who modernized Russia through Western reforms and founded St. Petersburg

Warrior Kings:

• Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden - Protestant champion in the Thirty Years' War who modernized military tactics

• Charles XII of Sweden - Military genius who led Sweden during the Great Northern War against Russia

• Frederick the Great of Prussia - Skilled military commander who expanded Prussia during the Seven Years' War

Divine Right Theorists:

• Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet - French bishop who articulated divine right theory to support Louis XIV's absolutism

• Thomas Hobbes - Argued that absolute monarchy prevents social chaos and civil unrest

Constitutional Monarchs:

• William and Mary of England - Accepted the Bill of Rights limiting royal power after the Glorious Revolution

English Civil War Figures (1642-1651):

• Oliver Cromwell – Parliamentary leader who defeated the royalists and ruled as Lord Protector

• Charles I – King executed after attempting to rule without Parliament

• Charles II – Son of Charles I who fled during the war and was later restored as king in 1660

• James I – Father of Charles I whose belief in absolute monarchy helped create tensions with Parliament

• James II – Son of Charles I and brother of Charles II; fought for the royalists during the war and was later king after the Restoration

War of Spanish Succession (1701-1714):

• Duke of Marlborough - British general who won major victories at Blenheim and Ramillies

• Louis XIV of France - Sought to place his grandson on the Spanish throne, triggering the war

• Prince Eugene of Savoy - Imperial general who partnered with Marlborough against France

Heliocentrism Founder:

• Nicolaus Copernicus - Polish astronomer who proposed that planets orbit the sun rather than Earth

Scientific Method Founders:

• Francis Bacon - English philosopher who developed empirical, inductive methodology

• René Descartes - French philosopher and mathematician who emphasized deductive reasoning and skepticism

Scientists & Natural Philosophers:

• Galileo Galilei - Italian scientist who improved the telescope, observed Jupiter's moons, and defended heliocentrism

• Isaac Newton - English physicist who formulated laws of motion and universal gravitation

• Robert Boyle - Irish scientist known for his work in chemistry and gas laws, often considered the father of modern chemistry.

Enlightenment Philosophes:

• Voltaire - Champion of civil liberties who used satire to attack intolerance and superstition

• Jean-Jacques Rousseau - Argued that civilization corrupted natural human goodness

• Denis Diderot - Chief editor of the Encyclopedia, cataloging Enlightenment knowledge

Social Contract Theory Founders:

• Thomas Hobbes - English philosopher who argued for absolute monarchy in "Leviathan" to prevent "war of all against all"

• John Locke - Theorized government as a contract to protect natural rights, allowing for resistance when broken

• Jean-Jacques Rousseau - Swiss philosopher who proposed direct democracy and the concept of "general will"

Political Theorists:

• Baron de Montesquieu - French philosopher who proposed separation of powers in government

• John Locke - Advocated limited government that protected natural rights

• Mary Wollstonecraft - English writer who argued for women's equality and education in "A Vindication of the Rights of Woman"

Classical Economics Founder:

• Adam Smith - Scottish philosopher who described market self-regulation through the "invisible hand" in "The Wealth of Nations"

Enlightened Absolutists:

• Frederick the Great of Prussia - Combined absolute power with Enlightenment reforms and religious tolerance

• Catherine the Great of Russia - Corresponded with philosophes while expanding Russian territory and power

• Joseph II of Austria - Habsburg emperor who implemented radical reforms including religious tolerance and serf emancipation

Seven Years' War (1756-1763):

• Frederick the Great - Prussian king who maintained his kingdom against overwhelming odds

• Maria Theresa of Austria - Habsburg empress who fought to recover Silesia from Prussia

American Revolution (1775-1783) Influences:

• Marquis de Lafayette - French aristocrat who fought for American independence and later promoted liberalism in France

• Thomas Jefferson - Primary author of the Declaration of Independence, influenced by Enlightenment thinking

• Benjamin Franklin - American polymath who secured French support for the revolution

French Revolution (1789-1799) Leaders:

• Maximilien Robespierre - Radical Jacobin leader of the Reign of Terror who pursued "virtue through terror"

• Georges Danton - Revolutionary leader known for oratory who was eventually executed during the Terror

• Jean-Paul Marat - Radical journalist murdered in his bath by Charlotte Corday

• Abbé Sieyès - Theorist who questioned the privileges of nobility and clergy

Constitutional Reformers:

• Baron von Stein - Prussian statesman who reformed government after defeat by Napoleon

Napoleonic Wars (1803-1815):

• Napoleon Bonaparte - French emperor who dominated Europe through military genius

• Duke of Wellington - British general who defeated Napoleon at Waterloo

• Tsar Alexander I - Russian emperor whose forces defeated Napoleon's Grande Armée

Latin American Independence (c. 1810-1825) Leaders:

• Simón Bolívar - "The Liberator" who freed much of northern South America from Spanish rule

• José de San Martín - Argentine general who liberated Argentina, Chile, and Peru

Revolutions of 1848 Leaders:

• Lajos Kossuth - Hungarian nationalist who led the revolution against Habsburg rule

• Giuseppe Mazzini - Italian nationalist who founded Young Italy to promote unification

• Louis Blanc - French socialist who advocated for workers' rights during the 1848 revolution

Early Industrialists:

• James Watt - Scottish engineer who improved the steam engine, enabling widespread industrialization

• Richard Arkwright - Inventor of the water frame who established the factory system

Economic Theorists:

• Adam Smith - Advocated free markets and specialization of labor

• Thomas Malthus - Predicted population growth would outpace food production, causing widespread suffering

Inventors & Engineers: (Industrial Revolution)

• James Watt - Whose steam engine improvements revolutionized manufacturing

• George Stephenson - English engineer who built the first commercial railways

Industrial Capitalists:

• Andrew Carnegie - Scottish-American steel magnate who practiced vertical integration and later philanthropy

• Alfred Krupp - German industrialist who built Europe's largest steel works and weaponry enterprise

Romanticism:

• William Wordsworth - English poet who celebrated nature and emotion in "Lyrical Ballads"

• Ludwig van Beethoven - German composer who bridged Classical and Romantic periods with emotionally expressive music

Conservatism Founder:

• Edmund Burke - Irish-born British statesman who criticized the French Revolution and championed gradual change

Classical Liberalism Founders:

• John Locke - Early advocate for natural rights and limited government

• Adam Smith - Proponent of free markets and limited government economic intervention

Utilitarianism Founders:

• Jeremy Bentham - English philosopher who proposed "greatest happiness for the greatest number" principle

• John Stuart Mill - English philosopher who refined utilitarianism and advocated for individual liberty

Liberal Politicians:

• William Gladstone - British Prime Minister who expanded voting rights and promoted free trade

Marxism Founders:

• Karl Marx - German philosopher who analyzed capitalism and proposed revolutionary socialism

• Friedrich Engels - Marx's collaborator who co-authored "The Communist Manifesto" and funded Marx's work

Utopian Socialism Founders:

• Henri de Saint-Simon - French theorist who envisioned industrial society led by scientists and engineers

Anarchism Founders:

• Pierre-Joseph Proudhon - French theorist who declared "property is theft" and advocated worker self-management

• Mikhail Bakunin - Russian revolutionary who opposed state authority and advocated collective ownership

Social Democracy Founders:

• Eduard Bernstein - German theorist who argued for gradual democratic reforms rather than revolution

• Karl Kautsky - Leading Marxist theoretician who eventually opposed Bolshevism

Chartist Movement (1838-1857):

• Feargus O'Connor - Radical Irish politician who led the working-class Chartist movement

• William Lovett - Working-class radical who helped draft the People's Charter demanding democratic reforms

Feminism Founders:

• Mary Wollstonecraft - British writer who advocated for women's education and equality in the 1790s

• Olympe de Gouges - French revolutionary who wrote "Declaration of the Rights of Woman" and was guillotined

Suffrage Movement Founders:

• Barbara Smith Bodichan - Gathered a group of women together who became known as The Ladies of Langham Place

• Millicent Fawcett - British suffragist who led the constitutional campaign for women's voting rights

• Pankhurst Family  - British suffragette who advocated militant tactics to secure women's suffrage

Crimean War (1853-1856):

• Queen Victoria - British monarch during the conflict against Russia

• Tsar Nicholas I - Russian emperor whose expansionism triggered the conflict

• Napoleon III - French emperor who allied with Britain against Russia

German Unification (1866-1871):

• Otto von Bismarck - Prussian "Iron Chancellor" who unified Germany through "blood and iron" policy

• Kaiser Wilhelm I - Prussian king crowned German Emperor after unification

Italian Unification (1859-1870):

• Giuseppe Mazzini - Founder of Young Italy who provided ideological inspiration for unification

• Count Camillo di Cavour - Sardinian Prime Minister who used diplomacy to advance northern Italian unification

• Giuseppe Garibaldi - Revolutionary leader whose "Expedition of the Thousand" conquered southern Italy

Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871):

• Otto von Bismarck - Prussian chancellor who engineered the conflict to complete German unification

• Kaiser Wilhelm I - Prussian king proclaimed German Emperor after victory

• Napoleon III - French emperor captured at the Battle of Sedan

Second Industrial Revolution Inventors:

• Thomas Edison - American inventor of the phonograph, practical light bulb, and numerous other devices

• Samuel Moore - Telegraph and Morse Code 

• Henry Ford - Invented the automobile industry 

Imperialism (c. 1870-1914)

Imperial Leaders:

• Cecil Rhodes - British businessman and politician who promoted British expansion in Africa

• King Leopold II of Belgium - Established personal rule over the Congo Free State, causing millions of deaths

Anti-Imperialists:

• J.A. Hobson - British economist who criticized imperialism as exploitative capitalism

Zionism (Late 19th Century):

• Theodor Herzl - Austrian journalist who founded political Zionism after witnessing antisemitism in France

Political Reformers (19th Century)

• Charles Grey - British Prime Minister who passed the Great Reform Act expanding voting rights

• Alexander II of Russia - Tsar who abolished serfdom in 1861 but was later assassinated

• Robert Peel - British Prime Minister who established modern police forces and repealed the Corn Laws

Economic Reformers (19th Century)

• Sergei Witte - Russian finance minister who spearheaded industrialization under the tsars

• William Gladstone - British Liberal who reformed government finances and free trade

• Anne-Robert-Jacques Turgot - French finance minister who attempted reforms before the RevolutionSocial Reformers:

Social Reformers (19th Century)

• William Wilberforce - British politician who led the movement to abolish the slave trade

• Florence Nightingale - Pioneered modern nursing during the Crimean War

• Edwin Chadwick - British reformer who improved public health and sanitation

• Robert Owen - Early industrialist who created model factory communities with improved conditions

Educational Reformers: (19th Century)

• Wilhelm von Humboldt - Prussian minister who founded the research university model

• Maria Montessori - Italian physician who developed child-centered education methods

• Jean-Baptiste de La Salle - French priest who pioneered education for poor children

World War I (1914-1918)

• Kaiser Wilhelm II - German emperor whose aggressive foreign policy contributed to war

• Tsar Nicholas II - Russian emperor whose regime collapsed during the war

• King George V - British monarch during the conflict

• Woodrow Wilson - American president who proposed the Fourteen Points for peace

Bolsheviks:

• Vladimir Lenin - Revolutionary leader who led the October Revolution and established Soviet power

• Leon Trotsky - Organized the Red Army and advocated "permanent revolution"

• Joseph Stalin - Succeeded Lenin and transformed the USSR through brutal industrialization

Provisional Government:

• Alexander Kerensky - Democratic socialist who briefly led Russia between the February and October revolutions

Fascist Leaders

• Benito Mussolini - Italian dictator who established the first fascist regime

• Francisco Franco - Spanish general who won the Civil War and ruled as dictator until 1975

Nazi Leaders:

• Adolf Hitler - German dictator who established the Third Reich and initiated the Holocaust

• Joseph Goebbels - Propaganda minister who controlled German media and culture

• Heinrich Himmler - SS leader who oversaw concentration camps and genocide

Democratic Leaders:

• Neville Chamberlain - British Prime Minister known for appeasement policy toward Hitler

Communist Leaders:

• Joseph Stalin - Soviet leader who implemented Five-Year Plans and the Great Purge

World War II (1939-1945):

• Adolf Hitler - Nazi dictator who launched the war and orchestrated the Holocaust

• Winston Churchill - British Prime Minister who led the fight against Nazi Germany

• Joseph Stalin - Soviet leader who helped defeat Germany after initially allying with Hitler

• Franklin D. Roosevelt - American president who led the Allied war effort

• Benito Mussolini - Italian dictator who allied with Hitler

Post-WWII Welfare State (1945-1970):

• Clement Attlee - British Prime Minister who established the National Health Service

• Willy Brandt - West German Chancellor who expanded social programs and pursued reconciliation with the East

Cold War Western Bloc Leaders;

• Harry Truman - American president who initiated containment policy against communism

• Konrad Adenauer - First chancellor of West Germany who aligned with Western powers

Cold War Eastern Bloc Leaders;

• Joseph Stalin - Soviet dictator who established communist control in Eastern Europe

• Nikita Khrushchev - Soviet leader known for de-Stalinization and the Cuban Missile Crisis

Cold War Reformers:

• Nikita Khrushchev - Denounced Stalin's crimes and pursued peaceful coexistence with the West

• Mikhail Gorbachev - Last Soviet leader whose reforms (glasnost and perestroika) helped end the Cold War

• Alexander Dubček - Czechoslovak leader whose "socialism with a human face" was crushed by Soviet invasion

European Union Founders:

• Robert Schuman - French foreign minister who proposed the European Coal and Steel Community

• Jean Monnet - French economist who designed early European integration institutions

• Konrad Adenauer - German chancellor who led West Germany into European institutions

• Alcide De Gasperi - Italian Prime Minister who helped establish European cooperation

Catholic Modernizers (1960s):

• Pope John XXIII - Initiated the Second Vatican Council (1962-65) which modernized Catholic practices and outreach

Post-Soviet Leaders (1991-Present)

• Boris Yeltsin - First president of post-Soviet Russia who implemented shock therapy economics

• Margaret Thatcher - British Prime Minister who helped shape post-Cold War Europe through neoliberal policies