Chapter 2 Behavior change

RESEARCH VARIABLES: What is a variable?

Variable = a characteristic of a person, place, or thing that can change over time and from one situation to another.

Basically:

A variable is something that can have different values.

Examples:

• Age

• Weight

• Amount of exercise

• Depression level

• Number of errors

• Amount of medication

• Temperature

• Number of times someone performs a behavior

THREE TYPES OF VARIABLES

• Independent variable (IV)

• Dependent variable (DV)

• Subject variable

Independent Variable (IV)

The variable that the researcher manipulates or changes.

Think:

IV = what the researcher DOES

The researcher deliberately changes the IV to see what happens.

Example

A researcher wants to know whether amount of exercise affects mood.

They assign people to:

• 0 minutes of exercise

• 30 minutes

• 60 minutes

The amount of exercise is the IV.

Why?

Because the researcher controls/manipulates it.

Dependent Variable (DV)

The variable that is measured to determine the effect of the independent variable.

Think:

DV = what the researcher MEASURES

The DV "depends" on the IV.

Example

Researcher changes:

Amount of exercise → IV

Then measures:

Depression level → DV

Subject Variable

A characteristic of the participants that already exists and cannot be manipulated by the researcher.

Examples:

• Sex

• Age

• Height

• Existing personality traits

• Previous experience

• Existing level of depression

Example

A researcher compares male and female students.

The researcher can't randomly decide:

"You are now male."

Their sex is a subject variable.

Dr. Stark studies the effects of marijuana on learning.

She gives ferrets different amounts of exposure:

• Three times/day

• Once/day

• None

Then she measures how quickly they learn to press a lever.

IV:

Amount/frequency of marijuana exposure

Why?

Because Dr. Stark manipulates it.

DV:

How quickly the ferrets learn to push the lever

Why?

Because that's what she measures.

Subject variable:

Ferrets

Technically, the species is a characteristic of the subjects, but based on the way your professor is presenting these questions, the important IV/DV distinction is the amount of marijuana and learning rate.

Dr. Didier studies exercise and depression.

Students are assigned to:

• Aerobic exercise

• Yoga

• No exercise

She measures depression before and after.

IV:

Type of exercise

Because she controls the exercise condition.

DV:

Depression level

Because she measures it.

Subject variable:

Sex (male vs. female)

because she compares males and females, but doesn't manipulate their sex.

ALSO:

The students' pre-existing depression level is a subject characteristic.

TEST TRICK

A variable can be mentioned in a study without being the IV.

Ask:

Did the researcher manipulate it?

YES → likely IV

NO → potentially a subject variable

Then ask:

Did the researcher measure it as the outcome?

YES → DV

STIMULUS & RESPONSE: Stimulus

Any event that has the potential to influence behavior.

Examples:

• Loud noise

• Food

• Flashing light

• Phone notification

• Teacher asking a question

• Pain

• Reward

• Someone smiling at you

STIMULUS & RESPONSE: Response

Any behavior.

Examples:

• Running

• Pressing a button

• Talking

• Crying

• Studying

• Smiling

• Pulling your hand away

STIMULUS & RESPONSE: Example

A teacher asks:

"Who knows the answer?"

A student raises their hand.

Stimulus: teacher's question

Response: raising their hand

Important

A stimulus doesn't have to actually change behavior.

Your professor says:

"Any event that has the potential to influence behavior."

So the stimulus is something that could influence behavior.

OVERT VS. COVERT BEHAVIOR: Overt behavior

Behavior that can be observed.

Examples:

• Walking

• Talking

• Running

• Raising your hand

• Pressing a button

• Writing

• Eating

If someone else can observe it, it's overt.

OVERT VS. COVERT BEHAVIOR: Covert behavior

Private behavior perceived only by the person doing the behavior.

Examples:

• Thoughts

• Feelings

• Memories

• Imagining something

• Private mental activity

Example

You are sitting in class thinking:

"I am so tired."

Nobody else can directly observe the thought.

→ Covert behavior

OVERT VS. COVERT BEHAVIOR

OVERT = OUTWARD

COVERT = CONCEALED/private

APPETITIVE VS. AVERSIVE STIMULI

Appetitive = approach

Aversive = avoid

Appetitive stimulus

An event that is sought out.

Think:

"I WANT this."

Examples:

• Food when you're hungry

• Water when you're thirsty

• Money

• Praise

• Entertainment

• Social interaction

Aversive stimulus

An event that is hoped to be avoided.

Think:

"I DON'T WANT this."

Examples:

• Pain

• Loud noise

• Electric shock

• Being yelled at

• A bad smell

• An unpleasant task

MOTIVATING OPERATIONS

How much you want or don't want something at a particular moment.

There are two types:

1. Establishing operation

2. Abolishing operation

Establishing Operation (EO)

An event that increases the appetitiveness or aversiveness of an event.

In simpler language:

It makes something more valuable/desirable or more aversive.

---

Example: Food

You haven't eaten all day.

Your hunger makes food more desirable.

Therefore:

Food becomes MORE appetitive.

→ Establishing operation

---

Example: Camping + phone

Your family takes your phone away for a week.

You haven't used your phone for seven days.

When you get home:

"GIVE ME MY PHONE."

The deprivation made the phone more appetitive.

Therefore:

No phone for a week → Establishing operation

Abolishing Operation (AO)

An event that decreases the appetitiveness or aversiveness of an event.

In simpler terms:

It makes something less valuable/desirable or less aversive.

---

Example

You just ate a huge meal.

Someone offers you pizza.

You're like:

"No thanks."

Food has become less appetitive.

YOUR PROFESSOR'S CAMPING QUESTION

Hendricks don't allow their son to bring his phone for a week.

When they return:

He is extremely eager to get his phone.

What type of stimulus is the phone?

What type of stimulus is the phone?

Appetitive stimulus

Because he wants it.

What type of motivating operation occurred?

Establishing operation

Because deprivation increased the phone's value.

Steve receives electric shocks paired with pornography to create an aversion.

What type of stimulus is the electric shock?

Aversive stimulus

Because it's something he wants to avoid.

What motivating operation?

The pairing is intended to make pornography less appetitive/more aversive. In the terminology from your slides, this is aimed at an abolishing operation with respect to the appetitiveness of pornography.

MOTIVATING OPERATIONS CHEAT SHEET

Operation	Effect
Establishing operation	Makes something MORE appetitive/aversive
Abolishing operation	Makes something LESS appetitive/aversive

Think:

EO = Enhances

AO = Away/less

CONTIGUITY

Contiguity = co-occurrence of stimuli in time or space.

Basically:

Things happen close together.

There are two types:

1. Temporal contiguity

2. Spatial contiguity

Temporal Contiguity

Stimuli/events occur close together in time.

Example

You hear a loud noise immediately before a bright flash.

They're close together in time.

→ Temporal contiguity

Spatial Contiguity

Stimuli/events occur close together in space/location.

Example

A food bowl is placed directly next to a dog's bed.

They're close together physically.

→ Spatial contiguity

Shortcut: Temporal vs Spatial

Temporal = time

Spatial = space

CONTINGENCY

This is VERY easy to confuse with contiguity.

Contiguity:

Events occur close together.

Contingency:

The occurrence of one event predicts the probability of another event.

In other words:

If A happens, B is more/less likely to happen.

---

Example

A student studies → they are more likely to get a good grade.

The studying behavior predicts the outcome.

That's a contingency.

CONTIGUITY VS CONTINGENCY

Contiguity:

"They happen close together."

Contingency:

"One predicts the other."

---

Example

A dog sits and immediately receives a treat.

The immediate timing = contiguity.

The fact that:

sitting → makes getting a treat more likely

= contingency.

OPERATIONAL DEFINITION

Operational definition = a statement of the procedures that will be used to measure a variable.

It tells researchers exactly how something will be measured.

It should be:

• Objective

• Unambiguous

Why do we need operational definitions?

Imagine a researcher says:

"We are measuring aggression."

Okay...

What exactly counts as aggression?

Does yelling count?

What about hitting?

What about insulting someone?

Different researchers might interpret it differently.

Instead, you could define aggression operationally as:

"The number of times a participant hits, kicks, pushes, or verbally insults another person during a 30-minute observation."

Now everyone knows exactly what you're measuring.

TEST CLUE

If the question asks:

"What exact procedures will be used to measure a variable?"

→ Operational definition

RECORDING METHODS

There are eight on your slides:

1. Rate of response

2. Interval recording

3. Time-sample recording

4. Intensity

5. Duration

6. Speed

7. Topography

8. Number of errors

Rate of Response

How frequently a behavior occurs within a specific amount of time.

Basically:

Number of responses ÷ amount of timeExample

A rat presses a lever 20 times in 5 minutes.

Rate = 20 responses / 5 minutes.

Scenario clue:

Look for:

• "per minute"

• "per hour"

• "times per day"

• frequency over a period of time

Interval Recording

You divide an observation period into intervals and record whether the behavior occurs during each interval.

Example

You observe a child for 30 minutes.

Break it into:

• 0–5 min

• 5–10 min

• 10–15 min

• etc.

You record whether the behavior occurred during each interval.

Time-Sample Recording

You observe behavior at specific moments in time rather than continuously.

Example

Every 10 minutes, you look at a student and record whether they're on-task at that exact moment.

You aren't watching continuously.

You're checking at specific sample points.

INTERVAL VS TIME-SAMPLE

Interval recording:

Did the behavior occur during the interval?

Time-sample:

Is the behavior occurring at this particular moment?

That's a VERY testable distinction.

Intensity

How strong or forceful a behavior is.

Examples:

• How loudly someone screams

• How hard someone hits a button

• How strongly someone grips something

Scenario:

A researcher measures how loudly participants yell.

→ Intensity

Duration

How long a behavior lasts.

Examples:

• Student studies for 45 minutes.

• Child cries for 10 minutes.

• Dog barks for 30 seconds.

Scenario clue:

"How long?"

→ Duration

Speed

How quickly a behavior occurs.

Example:

How quickly can someone complete a maze?

How quickly does a runner finish a race?

Scenario clue:

"How fast?"

→ Speed

Topography

The physical form or shape of a behavior.

Basically:

What does the behavior LOOK like?

Example

Two people both greet someone.

Person A waves.

Person B shakes hands.

The topography of the greeting differs.

Another example:

A child may engage in aggression by:

• hitting

• kicking

• biting

Those are different topographies/forms of behavior.

Number of Errors

Exactly what it sounds like.

How many mistakes occur while performing a task?

Example

A student completes 20 math problems and gets 4 wrong.

→ Number of errors = 4

RECORDING METHODS CHEAT SHEET

Method	Measures	Think
Rate	Frequency over time	"How often?"
Interval	Whether behavior occurs during intervals	"During this period?"
Time-sample	Behavior at specific moments	"Right now?"
Intensity	Strength	"How strongly?"
Duration	Length of behavior	"How long?"
Speed	How quickly	"How fast?"
Topography	Physical form	"What does it look like?"
Number of errors	Mistakes	"How many wrong?"

RELIABILITY VS. VALIDITY

Reliability:

Consistent?

Validity:

Accurate/actually measuring what it's supposed to?

Reliability

Reliability = consistency of a measurement.

Basically:

Does the measurement give consistent results?

Example

You weigh yourself three times:

• 150 lbs

• 150.1 lbs

• 149.9 lbs

That's pretty reliable.

The measurements are consistent.

Interobserver Reliability

This is specifically important from your slides.

Interobserver reliability = the extent to which two or more observers agree in their observations.

Example

Two researchers watch the same child.

Researcher A records:

10 aggressive behaviors.

Researcher B records:

11 aggressive behaviors.

Pretty good agreement → high interobserver reliability.

But if one records 10 and the other records 50:

→ low interobserver reliability.

Validity

Your provided slides don't have the definition written out, but because your study guide specifically says reliability vs validity, you should know:

Validity = the extent to which a measurement actually measures what it is supposed to measure.

Example

You want to measure intelligence.

You create a test that actually measures reading speed instead.

It might produce consistent results (reliable) but isn't necessarily measuring intelligence (not valid).

A useful example

Imagine a broken scale that is always 10 pounds too high.

It says:

• 160

• 160

• 160

It's:

✅ Reliable

❌ Not valid

Because the measurement is consistent but inaccurate.

DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH

Descriptive research = gathering information about a behavior and the circumstances in which it occurs.

The key thing:

🚨 DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH DOES NOT ESTABLISH CAUSATION.

This is VERY important.

You can find:

"People who exercise more tend to report lower depression."

But you cannot automatically conclude:

"Exercise causes lower depression."

There could be other explanations.

FOUR TYPES OF DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH

1. Surveys

2. Case studies

3. Archival research

4. Naturalistic observation

Surveys

Researchers ask people questions.

Example

A researcher gives 1,000 college students a questionnaire asking:

"How many hours do you sleep each night?"

That's a survey.

Scenario clue:

• Questionnaire

• Interview

• Self-report

• Asking lots of people questions

→ Survey

Case Study

An in-depth examination of one person, small group, or unusual case.

Example

A psychologist spends months studying one person with a rare neurological condition.

→ Case study

Scenario clue:

One person / rare case / extremely detailed investigation

→ Case study

Archival Research

Researchers examine existing records or documents.

Examples:

• Medical records

• School records

• Crime statistics

• Historical documents

• Company records

• Previous research databases

Example

A researcher examines 20 years of police records to study changes in crime.

→ Archival research

Naturalistic Observation

Observing behavior in its natural environment without manipulating it.

Example

A researcher goes to a playground and observes how children interact with each other.

They don't interfere.

→ Naturalistic observation

DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH CHEAT SHEET

Type	What happens?
Survey	Ask people questions
Case study	Deep study of one/few cases
Archival	Analyze existing records
Naturalistic observation	Observe behavior naturally

🚨 ALL FOUR:

Describe behavior

but:

❌ Do NOT demonstrate cause and effect.

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS

Now we're moving from:

"What is happening?"

to:

"Does X cause Y?"

Experimental research:

Manipulates one or more independent variables to determine their effect on dependent variables.

This is the key distinction.

Experimental research allows researchers to investigate:

Cause → effect

because they manipulate the IV and measure the DV.

THREE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS

1. Group designs

2. Factorial designs

3. Single-subject designs

GROUP DESIGNS

Variables are manipulated among groups of participants, and differences between groups are compared.

Example

Group 1:

30 minutes aerobic exercise

Group 2:

30 minutes yoga

Group 3:

No exercise

Then compare depression levels.

That's a group design

FACTORIAL DESIGNS

Examines the effects of two or more independent variables across groups.

The key is:

2+ IVsExample

A researcher studies how:

• Exercise type

• Amount of sleep

affect depression.

There are TWO independent variables:

IV #1: exercise type

IV #2: sleep amount

DV: depression level

→ Factorial design

Test clue

If you see:

"The researcher manipulates two factors/independent variables..."

Factorial design

SINGLE-SUBJECT DESIGNS

The same participant(s) serve as their own control.

This is VERY different from group designs.

Instead of:

Group A vs Group B

you might do:

Same person before treatment vs same person during treatment.

Example

A researcher measures a child's disruptive behavior for two weeks.

Then introduces a behavioral intervention.

Then compares behavior before and after the intervention.

The participant essentially serves as their own control

SINGLE-COMPARISON DESIGN

Also called:

AB Design

There are two phases:

A = BaselineB = Treatment

---

Phase A — Baseline

Measure the normal frequency of behavior before intervention.

You are basically asking:

"What does this person's behavior normally look like?"

---

Phase B — Treatment

Administer the intervention/procedure.

Now the researcher changes something.

Example

A child throws tantrums.

A:

Measure tantrums for two weeks.

Average:

8 tantrums/day

B:

Introduce a behavioral intervention.

Now:

3 tantrums/day

The researcher compares A and B.

AB =

A = Before

B = Intervention

REVERSAL DESIGN

Also called:

ABA Design

This design adds a third phase.

A = BaselineB = TreatmentA = Return to baseline

---

ExampleA:

Child averages 10 tantrums/day.

B:

Treatment begins → 4 tantrums/day.

A:

Treatment removed → tantrums return toward 10/day.

This is called a:

Reversal design

because you're reversing/removing the treatment.

Your slides specifically say:

ABABABA...

You can alternate:

Baseline → Treatment → Baseline → Treatment → Baseline → Treatment

etc.

SINGLE-COMPARISON VS REVERSAL

Design	Phases
Single-comparison	AB
Reversal	ABA or ABAB...

MULTIPLE-BASELINE DESIGN

Basic idea:

You have:

Baseline → Treatment

but you introduce treatment at different points in time.

This can happen across:

1. Subjects

2. Settings

3. Behaviors

---

Why use this?

Sometimes you can't or shouldn't remove a treatment.

For example, if a treatment helps someone, it might be unethical to remove it just to see whether the problem returns.

Multiple-baseline designs can help demonstrate an effect without reversing the treatment.

Example: Across Subjects

Three students:

• Student A

• Student B

• Student C

You collect baseline data on all three.

Then:

Week 2:

Treatment begins for Student A.

Week 4:

Treatment begins for Student B.

Week 6:

Treatment begins for Student C.

If each person's behavior improves after treatment begins, that's evidence that the treatment may be responsible.

Three types

Multiple-baseline across subjects

Treatment begins at different times for:

Different people

---

② Multiple-baseline across settings

Treatment begins at different times in:

Different environments

Example:

• Classroom

• Home

• Gym

---

③ Multiple-baseline across behaviors

Treatment begins at different times for:

Different behaviors

Example:

A child has:

• Hitting

• Screaming

• Throwing objects

Treatment is introduced to each behavior at different times

MULTIPLE BASELINE CHEAT

Ask:

What is being staggered?

People → across subjects

Places → across settings

Behaviors → across behaviors

CHANGING CRITERION DESIGN

Changing criterion design = systematically altering some criterion to gradually change behavior.

The key word is:

GRADUALLY

You're setting a target and then progressively changing that target.

CHANGING criterion design example

Suppose someone needs to increase exercise.

Baseline:

2 workouts/week

Criterion 1:

3 workouts/week

Criterion 2:

4 workouts/week

Criterion 3:

5 workouts/week

The behavior gradually changes as the criterion changes.

---

Another example

A student currently studies:

30 minutes/day

You set criteria:

30 min → 45 min → 60 min → 75 min

The behavior changes progressively as the criterion changes.

TEST CLUE

If you see:

"The researcher gradually increases/decreases the required amount of behavior

Changing criterion design

CHAPTER 2 — BIG COMPARISON TABLE

Concept	What it means	Scenario clue
IV	Manipulated variable	Researcher changes it
DV	Measured outcome	Researcher measures it
Subject variable	Existing participant characteristic	Age, sex, etc.
Stimulus	Event that can influence behavior	Something happens
Response	Any behavior	Person/animal does something
Overt	Observable behavior	Others can see it
Covert	Private behavior	Thoughts/feelings
Appetitive	Sought out	"I want it"
Aversive	Avoided	"I don't want it"
Establishing operation	Makes stimulus more appetitive/aversive	Increases value
Abolishing operation	Makes stimulus less appetitive/aversive	Decreases value
Temporal contiguity	Events close in time	Happens close together
Spatial contiguity	Events close in space	Physically close
Contingency	One event predicts another	If A → B more likely
Operational definition	Exact measurement procedures	"How exactly is it measured?"
Reliability	Consistency	Same results repeatedly
Validity	Accuracy/actually measures intended thing	Measuring what you claim
Survey	Ask questions	Questionnaire
Case study	Deep study of one/few cases	Rare individual
Archival	Existing records	Files/statistics
Naturalistic observation	Observe natural behavior	No manipulation
Group design	Compare groups	Group A vs B
Factorial design	2+ IVs	Multiple manipulated factors
Single-subject	Participant is own control	Same person before/after
AB	Baseline → treatment	Two phases
ABA	Baseline → treatment → baseline	Treatment removed
Multiple baseline	Treatment staggered	Different people/settings/behaviors
Changing criterion	Gradually change target	10 → 20 → 30