bisc 225 exam 1 study guide

Anatomy

Derived from the Greek word for

'cutting up'; the field of study examining body structures.

Physiology

Derived from the Greek word for

'relationship to nature'; the field of study examining the functions of body parts.

What are the major elements of the human body

The major elements of the human body include oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, calcium, and phosphorus.

Levels of organization in order from simplest to most complex

Atom

Molecule

Macromolecule

Cell

Tissue

Organ

Organ system

Organism

Subatomic particles

protons, neutrons, and electrons that make up cells

Atom

tiny particles that make up chemicals (hydrogen, carbon)

Molecule

particles consisting of atoms joined together (water, glucose)

Macromolecule

large particles consisting of molecules (DNA, protein)

Organelle

functional part of a cell (mitochondrion, lysosome)

Cell

basic unit of structure and functions (muscle, nerve, or blood cell)

Tissue

layer or mass of cells with specific function (adipose or epithelial tissue)

Organ

group of different tissues with a function (heart, kidney, stomach)

Organ system

group of organs with common function (digestive system)

Organism

individual living entity made up of one or more systems that function together to sustain life</span>

What are the processes of the characteristics of life

Growth-

Increase in cell number and size and increase in body size

Reproduction-

Production of new cells and organisms

Responsiveness-

Reaction to a change inside or outside of the body

Movement-

Change in body position or location; motion of internal organs

Metabolism- The sum of all chemical reactions in a living system: Energy and nutrient cycling

What are the 4 processes listed under metabolism?

Respiration

Digestion

Circulation

Excretion

• Respiration

• Acquiring energy. Most organisms do it by taking in oxygen and giving off carbon dioxide

• Digestion

• Breaking down food into usable nutrients for absorption into the blood

Circulation

• Moving chemicals and cells through the body fluids

• move blood, oxygen, nutrients, and waste products throughout the body

Excretion

• Removing waste products

What are the three requirements for life

Chemicals-substances needed for body processes

Heat-necessary for chemical reactions

Pressure-needed for processes such as breathing and circulation

What are the four chemical requirements for life under CHEMICALS

Water

Oxygen

Carbon Dioxide

Food

What is carbon dioxide

A waste product of food breakdown

What does food supply

Nutrients needed to supply energy

What is heat?

A form of energy.

How does temperature affect the body?

It controls the rate of chemical reactions.

What is pressure?

A force applied to something

Why are atmospheric and hydrostatic pressure important?

Atmospheric: breathing

Hydrostatic: keeps blood flowing

What is homeostasis?

Maintenance of a stable internal environment

 -All cells contribute to homeostasis in one way or another

How many components do homeostatic mechanisms have and what are they?

3

Receptor(sensor)

Control center

Effectors

What do receptors do?

Detects changes or deviations in a physiological variable (the internal or external environment).

What does the control center do?

• Receives and processes information from the receptor and compares it to the normal set point.

What does the effector do?

Acts on the command of the control center to oppose or reverse the deviation, bringing the value back to normal.

Negative feedback loops

A homeostatic mechanism where a deviation from a set point is detected and corrected by effectors, reducing effector activity as conditions return to normal.

-Reverses a change and brings the body back toward its normal range

Positive feedback loops

A mechanism in which a deviation from the set point drives conditions farther away from normal, producing short-lived unstable conditions.

-Amplifies of increases a change until a specific event is completed.

Serous membranes consists of what 2 layers?

Visceral layer

Parietal layer

What is the difference between visceral and parietal membranes?

Visceral layer: inner layer, which covers an organ

Parietal layer: outer layer, which lines the wall of the cavity

What are the organs systems?

integumentary

skeletal

muscular

nervous

endocrine

cardiovascular

lymphatic

respiratory

digestive

urinary
reproductive

integumentary system’s function

protects tissues, regulates body temperatures, supports sensory receptors

skeletal system’s functions

provides framework, protects soft tissues, provides attachments for muscles, produces blood cells, stores inorganic salts

muscular system’s function

causes movements, maintains posture, produces body heat

nervous system’s function

detects changes, receives and interprets sensory information, stimulates muscles and glands

Endocrine system’s functions

control metabolic activities of body structures

Cardiovascular system’s function

Moves blood through blood vessels and transports substances throughout body

Lymphatic system’s function

return tissue fluid to the blood, carry certain absorbed food molecules, defend the body against infection

Digestive system’s function

Receive, break down, and absorb food; eliminate unabsorbed material

Respiratory system’s function

intake and output of air, exchange of gases between air and blood

Urinary system’s functions

Remove wastes from blood, maintain water and electrolyte balance, store and eliminate urine

Reproductive system’s function

-Produce and maintain sperm cells; transfer sperm cells into the female reproductive tract

-Produce and maintain oocytes, receive sperm cells, support development of an embryo, and function in the birth process

Major Organs of Integumentary

Skin, hair, nails, sweat glands, sebaceous glands

Major Organs of Skeletal

Bones, ligaments, cartilages

Major Organs of Muscular

Muscles

Major OrgansNervous

Brain, spinal cord, nerves, sense organs

Major Organs of Endocrine

Glands that secrete hormones (pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, adrenal glands, pancreas, ovaries, testes, pineal gland, and thymus)

Major Organs of Cardiovascular

Heart, arteries, capillaries, veins

Major Organs of Lymphatic

Lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, thymus, spleen

Major Organs of Digestive

Mouth, tongue, teeth, salivary glands, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, liver, gallbladder, pancreas, small and large intestines

Major Organs of Respiratory

Nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs

Major Organs of Urinary

Kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra

Major Organs of Reproductive

Male: scrotum, testes, epididymites, ducts differentia ,seminal vesicles, prostate glands, bulbourethral glands, urethra, penis

Female: ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina, clitoris, vulva.

Anatomical Position

• Standing erect

• Face forward

• Upper limbs at the side

• Palms forward

Anatomical Position Definition

The standard reference posture used by medical and scientific professionals to consistently describe the human body, regardless of how the patient is actually positioned.

Relative Directional/ Position Terms

Superior- Above another part

Inferior- Below another part

Anterior- Toward the front

Posterior- Toward the back

Medial- Closer to the midline

Lateral-Away from the midline

Bilateral- Paired structures, one on each side of the midline

Ipsilateral- Structures on the same side

Contralateral- Structures on opposite sides

Proximal- A part closer to a point of attachment to the trunk than another body part.

Distal- Farther from a point of attachment to the trunk

Superficial- Near the surface

Deep- More internal parts

Sagittal section

A vertical plane that runs front-to-back and divides the body into left and right sections.

Transverse Section

A horizontal plane parallel to the ground that divides the body into upper (superior) and lower (inferior) sections.

Coronal Sections

A vertical plane that runs side-to-side and divides the body into front (anterior) and back (posterior) sections.

What are the 9 abdominal regions

Epigastric-Upper middle portions

Right and left hypochondriac- Right/left side of the epigastric region

Umbilical- Central portion

Right and left lateral (lumbar) regions- Right/left side of the umbilical region

Pubic (hypogastric) region-Lower middle portion

Right and left inguinal region- right and left side of

the pubic region

Difference between atoms, molecules, elements, and compounds.

Atom: smallest particles of an element that have the properties of that element

Element: A pure substance made of only one type of atom. There are 92 naturally occurring elements.

Molecule: Two or more atoms chemically bonded together. The atoms may be the same or different element (O2 and H2O)

Compounds: A substance made of atoms from two or more different elements chemically bonded together. (H2O, CO2 , C6H12O6 , and NaCl)

What are the major elements that make up most of our body weight.

Oxygen

Carbon

Hydrogen

Nitrogen

(O-C-N-H)

Protons, neutrons, and electrons.

Protons- Large particles; carry a single positive charge

Neutrons- Large particles; carry no electrical charge

Electrons- Small particles; carry a single negative charge

Why are atoms electrically neutral?

They have a equal number of protons and electrons, balancing the overall charge.

Number of protons=number of electrons

Atomic Number vs. Mass number

Atomic Number =Number of protons in a single atom (Each element has a unique atomic number.)

Mass number= The number of protons + the number of neutrons in one atom (Electrons do not contribute to the mass of the atom because they are so light.)

How do you tell the number of protons, neutrons, and electrons based on atomic number or mass?

Protons= atomic #

Neutrons= atomic # (if the atom is neutral)

Electrons= mass #- Atomic #

Example: Carbon-12

Carbon has:

-Atomic Number=6

-Mass number=12

Therefore:

Protons=6, Electrons=6, Neutrons= 12-6=6

Isotope

An atom of a certain element have the same atomic number (same number of protons), but can have a different atomic mass (vary in number of neutrons).

Number of elements in a Formula

Ex: H2O, and C6H12O6

: H, O = 2 different elements

:C6H12O6 = 3 different elements

Electron occupy energy levels/shells.

1st shell= 2 electrons

2nd shell= 8 electrons

3rd shell= 8 electrons( commonly represented as up to 8 for the octet rule)

Octet Rule

Atoms tend to gain, lose, or share electrons to have 8 electrons in their outer shell.

(Outer shell electrons are called valance electrons)

Ionic Bond

Strong chemical bonds formed when ions of opposite charge attract.

Covalent Bonds

Strong chemical bonds, formed between atoms that share electrons

Polar covalent bonds

a type of chemical bond where two atoms share electrons unequally because one atom has a stronger pull than the other

Non-polar covalent bonds

a type of chemical bond that is formed when electrons are shared equally between two atoms.

Hydrogen Bonds

Relatively weak attraction of a slightly positive (H) end of one polar molecule to a slightly negative (N or O) end of a nearby polar molecule.

Synthesis Reaction

more complex chemical structure is formed, 2 or more reactants (growth or repair); require energy; i.e. protein synthesis

A+B= AB

Decomposition Reaction

chemical bonds are broken to form a simpler chemical structure (digestion); release energy

AB= A+B

Exchange Reactions

chemical bonds are broken, and new bonds are formed (stomach acid is neutralized)

AB + CD to AD + CB

Reversible Reaction

the products can change back to the reactants (oxygen binds to hemoglobin)

A+B to AB and vise versa

Catalyst

influence the rate of reactions (enzymes)

Acid

Electrolytes that dissociate to release hydrogen ions in water (increase hydrogen

concentration).

Base

Substances that release hydroxide ions that can combine with hydrogen ions (decrease

hydrogen concentration)

Salts

Electrolytes formed by the reaction between an acid and a base.

Ionic compound that can dissociate into ions in water.

What is being released into water?

Dissociation of sodium and water of chloride ions in water

What are the pH range for acid and bases?

pH greater than 7=base

pH less than 7=acid

The pH scale generally ranges from 0-14

What is the 10-fold difference

10-fold change from one pH to the next pH of 6 has ten times the hydrogen ion concentration as a solution with pH of 7

What is the difference between organic and inorganic chemical constituents in the cell

Organic: have carbon and hydrogen atoms

Inorganic: chemical substances that do not include both carbon and hydrogen atoms

Four Organic Constituents types are:

Carbohydrates- C,H,O =quick energy

Lipids- C,H,O=long-term energy storage
Proteins- C,H,O,N =structure and function
Nucleic Acids- C,H,O,N,P =genetic information

Monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.

(Mono)saccharides

-single sugar units

ex:glucose

(Di)saccharides

-two sugar units

ex: sucrose

(Poly)saccharides

-many sugar units

ex: glycogen, starch

Lipids

are organic compounds made primarily of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen that serve as long-term energy storage and structural components in cell membranes.

Saturated Fats

• Have only single carbon-carbon bonds

• Binds as many hydrogens as possible saturated with hydrogen

• Most are solid at room temperature

• Most are of animal origin

Unsaturated Fats

• Have one or more carbon-carbon double bonds

• Most are liquid at room temperature

• Most are of plant origin

• Monounsaturated  one double bond

• Polyunsaturated two or more double bonds

What are the components that make up a phospholipid?

Glycerol

phosphate group- polar/hydrophilic

2 fatty acid tails- nonpolar/hydrophobic