Unit 4 - Social Psychology and Personality

person perception

how we form impressions of ourselves and others, including attributions of behavior

attribution theory

the theory that we explain someone’s behavior by creating either the situation (situational) or the person’s stable enduring traits (dispositional attribution)

fundamental attribution error

the tendency for observers, when analyzing others’ behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition

ex. believing a co-woker is lazy when they don’t show up on time when they had an accident

actor-observer bias

tendency to attribute our own behaviors to situational factors while attributing others' behaviors to dispositional factors

ex. blaming another person’s car accident for their poor driving skills but blaming own accident for slippery roads

prejudice vs stereotype vs discrimination

prejudice - unjustifiable and usually negative attitude towards a group of people; involves negative emotions, stereotype beliefs and likelihood of discriminatory action

stereotype - generalized (sometimes accurate) belief about a group of people

discrimination - unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group due to prejudice

just-world phenomenon

tendency for people to believe that the world is just and people get what they deserve (if they suffer they must be bad and vice versa)

scapegoat theory

theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame

ex. doing poorly on test and blaming teacher for not teaching well

other-race effect/cross-race effect/own-race bias

tendency to recall faces of one’s own race more accurately than faces of other races

foot-in-the-door phenomenon

the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request

(door-in-the-face effect is the opposite)

cognitive dissonance theory

the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel when 2 of our thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent

ex. if we get money for writing a statement that goes against our beliefs, we might rationalize and start believing in the words

peripheral route persuasion vs central route persuasion

peripheral - when people are influenced by incidental cues

ex. a speaker is a celebrity or attractive

central - when interested people’s thinking is influenced by considering evidence and arguments

ex. climate change intervention support puts out arguments focusing on accumulating greenhouse gases, melting artic ice, rising world temperatures and seas, and increasing extreme weather

social contagion

spontaneous spread of behaviors

ex. lion see another member of pride yawning is more likely to yawn

mood contagion

spread of moods

ex. more likely to be happy around people who are happy than depressed

normative and informational social influences

normative - conform to avoid rejection or gain social approval

informational - conform because believes they are right

social facilitation

in the presence of other, improved performance on simple or well-learned tasks, or worsened performance sometimes

social loafing

the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts towards attaining a common goal than when individually accountable

ex. not working as hard when doing a group project

deindividuation

the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity

ex. vandalizing when in a large crowd or during riots

group polarization

the enhancement of a group’s prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group

ex. a group of conservatives agreeing more strongly with a shared opinion after condemning democrats

groupthink

the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives

ex. a team leader proposes an idea and everyone agrees even though they are skeptical

loose vs tight culture

a place with flexible and informal vs clearly defined and reliably imposed norms

ex. jaywalking and lining up properly

frustration-aggression principle

the principle that frustration - blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal - creates anger, which can generate aggression

social script

culturally modeled guide for how to act in various situations

ex. how to behave on a first date or during a job interview

aggression

physical or verbal behavior intended to harm someone

influenced by multiple factors, such as genetic markers like the Y chromosome and the monoamine oxidase A (MAOA) gene, damaged or inactive frontal lobes, amygdala, or high testosterone levels

mere exposure effect

the tendency for repeated exposure to novel stimuli to increase our liking of them

ex. infants prefer photos of their race they most see often (usually their own)

reward theory of attraction

we are attracted to those whose behavior is rewarding to us, who are both able and willing to help achieve our goals

passionate love

an aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the beginning of a romantic relationship

sexual desire + a growing attachment = passionate love

companionate love

deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined because although testosterone, dopamine and adrenaline subside, oxytocin remains

self-disclosing intimacy + mutually supportive equity = companionate love

self-disclosure

the act of revealing intimate aspects of ourselves to others

ex. asking “When was the last time you cried in front of another person?”

equity

a condition in which people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give to it

ex. sharing household chores

social exchange theory

the theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs

reciprocity norm

an expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them

social-responsibility norm

an expectation that people will help those needing their help

ex. jumping into the train tracks to save a man having a seizure

social trap

a situation in which two parties, by each pursuing their self-interest rather than the good of the group, become caught in a mutually destructive behavior

ex. the prisoner’s dilemma

mirror-image perceptions

mutual views often held by conflicting parties, as when each side sees itself as ethical and peaceful and views the other side as evil and aggressive

ex. both political parties think they are more morally justified then their opponent

self-fulfilling prophecy

a belief that leads to its own fulfillment

ex. when you think someone doesn’t like you so you start acting coldly and then they actually don’t like you

superordinate goals

shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation

ex. beachgoers working together formed a human chain to save a family stuck in a Florida rip current

GRIT

graduated and reciprocated initiatives in tension-reduction; a strategy designed to decrease international tensions

one side starts by announcing recognition of mutual interests and intent to reduce tensions → initiates more conciliatory acts

psychodynamic theories

theories that view personality with a focus on the unconscious mind and the importance of childhood experiences

psychoanalysis

Freud’s theory that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts; the techniques used in treating psychological disorders by seeking to expose and interpret unconscious tensions

unconscious (how has the definition changed)

according to Freud, a reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings and memories

according to modern psychologists, information processing of which we are unaware

free association

in psychoanalysis, the technique of exploring the unconscious by saying whatever comes to mind when relaxed

id

operates on the pleasure principle

libido = life energy force that fuels pleasure-seeking

ego

operates on the reality principle and weighs risks and rewards

superego

emerges ~4 or 5

strives for perfection and considers ideal

defense mechanisms

regression - retreating to earlier psychosexual stage

reaction formation - switching unacceptable impulses into their opponents

projection

rationalization

displacement - shifting sexual or aggressive impulses towards a more acceptable or less threatening object or person

sublimation - transferring unacceptable impulses into socially valued motives

denial

collective unconscious

Carl Jung’s concept of a shared inherited reservoir of memory traces from our species’ history

terror-management theory

a theory of death-related anxiety; explores people’s emotional and behavior responses to reminders of their impending death

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

a projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes

projective test

a personality test, such as the TAT or Rorschach that provides ambiguous images designed to trigger projection of one’s inner dynamics and explore the preconscious and unconscious mind

Rorschach inkblot test

a projective test designed by Hermann Rorschach; seeks to identify people’s inner feelings by analyzing how they interpret 10 inkblots

self-transcendence

according to Maslow, the striving for identity, meaing, and purpose beyond the self

humanistic theorists

Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers

self-actualization

fulfilling one’s potential

hierarchy of needs

physiological needs, safety, belongingness and love, esteem, self-actualization, and self-transcendence

unconditional positive regard

acceptance and support regardless of what one says or does

individualism

trusting and acting on one’s feelings

factor analysis

a statistical method used to identify underlying relationships between variables, often used in personality research

reduced to extraversion-introversion and emotional stability-instability dimensions

personality inventories

longer questionnaires covering a wide range of feelings and behaviors to assess several traits at once

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)

most widely used and researched personality tests originally for identifying emotional disorders

empirically derived test

a test created by selecting from a pool of items those that discriminate between groups

Big Five factors/five-factor models

five traits: openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism that describe personality

social-cognitive perspective

a view of behavior as influenced by the interaction between people’s traits (including their thinking) and their social context

proposed by Albert Bandura

behavioral approach

focuses on the effects of learning on personality development

reciprocal determinism

the interacting influences of behavior, internal cognition, and environment

assessment center approach

a method of evaluating candidates based on their performance in simulated work scenarios and exercises

self

in modern psychology, the center of personality, organizer of our thoughts, feelings and actions

spotlight effect

overestimating others’ noticing and evaluating our appearance, performance, and blunders (as if we presume a spotlight shines on us)

self-esteem vs self-efficacy

one's overall sense of self-worth vs the belief in one's ability to succeed in specific situations or tasks

self-serving bias

a readiness to perceive ourselves favorably

narcissism

expressive self-love and self-absorption

individualism vs collectivism

the contrast between prioritizing individual needs and goals versus prioritizing group needs and goals (often extended family or work group)

motivation

energy that directs behavior

instinct

a complex behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is unlearned

physiological need

a basic bodily requirement

drive-reduction theory

the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused state (drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy that need

incentive

positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior

incentive theory - we are pushed by need to reduce drives but pulled by incentives

Yerkes-Dodson law

principle that performance increases with arousal only up to a point, beyond which performance decreases

ex. students perform better while completing calculus problems alone than with a professor watching

4 perspectives/theories of motivation

instinct, drive-reduction, arousal theory, and Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

affiliation need

the need for interpersonal relationships and social connections

self-determination theory

we strive to satisfy competence, autonomy, and relatedness

intrinsically motiavted

performing behaviors because they enhance feelings of competence, autonomy and relatedness

extrinsically motivated

undermine feelings of competence and autonomy by engaging in activities for external rewards or pressures

ostracism

elicits increased brain activity in the anterior cingulate cortex (also respons to physical pain)

correlational studies, longitudinal studies, and experiments

correlational - research methods that examine the relationship between two variables without manipulating them

ex. is social media use associated with teen mental health?

longitudinal - research methods that collect data from the same subjects over a period of time to observe changes and developments.

ex. does teens’ social media use predict their future mental health?

experiments - manipulates a variable to come to a conclusion

ex. do volunteers randomly assigned to restricted social media use fare better than those not assigned on outcomes such as loneliness?

self-disclosure

sharing joys, worries and weaknesses with others → healthy coping

achievement motivation

the drive to pursue goals and accomplish tasks

intrinsic vs extrinsic motivation

doing things because they are personally rewarding v.s. doing things due to external rewards or pressures

organizational psychologists

study ways to engage and motivate ordinary people doing ordinary jobs

glucose

energy source for body tissues; when level is low → hunger

appetite hormones that hypothalamus controls

ghrelin, leptin (increases appetite); orexin, and PYY (decreases appetite)

set point

a stable weight that a body tries to maintain when it falls below

basal metabolic rate

the resting rate at which the body uses energy to maintain vital functions

settling point

the level at which a person’s weight settles in response to caloric intake and expenditure

ecology of eating

how environments impact eating, such as with friends, serving size, variety of food, and nudging nutrition

obesity

a body mass index (BMI) of 30 or higher, characterized by excessive body fat accumulation

emotion

a response of the whole organism involving 1. physiological arousal 2. expressive behaviors and most importantly, 3. conscious experience resulting from one’s interpretations

James-Lange theory

feelings follow body’s response

Cannon-Bard theory

bodily responses and experienced emotions occur separately but simultaneously

spillover effect

the tendency for emotions to affect subsequent reactions and feelings in different situations after an initial emotional experience

ex. smiling because the people around you are celebrating

valence and arousal emotions

valence - positive vs negative

arousal - low versus high