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First Law of Thermodynamics
The principle that energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transformed or transferred.
Internal Energy (ΔU)
The total energy contained within a system.
Heat (q)
The energy transferred into or out of a system due to temperature differences.
Work (w)
The energy transferred when a force is applied over a distance.
P–V Work
Work associated with the expansion or compression of a gas.
Enthalpy (ΔH)
A measure of the total heat content of a system at constant pressure.
Endothermic Process
A process that absorbs heat from the surroundings (q > 0).
Exothermic Process
A process that releases heat to the surroundings (q < 0).
State Function
A property whose value depends only on the state of the system, not on how it reached that state.
Path Function
A property that depends on the specific way in which a change occurs.
Gas Expansion
The process where a gas increases in volume.
Gas Compression
The process where a gas decreases in volume.
Heat Absorption
When a system gains heat energy (q > 0).
Heat Release
When a system loses heat energy (q < 0).
ΔU=q+w
The equation representing the change in internal energy as the sum of heat and work.
w=−PΔV
The formula for calculating work done during a gas expansion or compression.
ΔH=ΔU+PΔV
The equation used to calculate enthalpy change at constant pressure.
Constant Volume Process
A thermodynamic process where the volume remains constant, resulting in no work done (w = 0).
Constant Pressure Process
A process where the pressure remains constant.
Sign Convention for Heat
If heat is absorbed by the system, q is positive; if heat is released, q is negative.
Sign Convention for Work
If work is done on the system, w is positive; if work is done by the system, w is negative.
Heat Capacity
The amount of heat required to change a substance's temperature by one degree.
Specific Heat
The amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of one gram of a substance by one degree Celsius.
Thermodynamic System
A quantity of matter or a region in space chosen for study.
Surroundings
Everything outside the thermodynamic system.
Isolated System
A system that does not exchange matter or energy with its surroundings.
Closed System
A system that can exchange energy but not matter with its surroundings.
Open System
A system that can exchange both energy and matter with its surroundings.
Phase Change
A transition of a substance from one state of matter to another.
Thermal Equilibrium
The state at which two bodies in thermal contact cease to exchange energy.
Combustion
A chemical reaction that occurs between a fuel and an oxidant, producing heat and light.
Sublimation
The process of a solid turning directly into a gas without passing through a liquid phase.
Heat Transfer
The movement of thermal energy from one object to another.
Thermodynamic Cycle
A series of processes that return a system to its initial state.
Work Done on a Gas
The energy transferred to the gas when external pressure is applied (typically seen in compression).
Work Done by a Gas
The energy transferred by the gas when it expands against external pressure.
Molar Enthalpy of Vaporization
The amount of energy needed to vaporize one mole of a liquid at constant temperature and pressure.
Thermal Energy
The total energy of all the particles in a substance.
Heat Flow
The movement of thermal energy from a high-temperature area to a low-temperature area.
Energy Conversion
The process of changing one form of energy into another.
Ideal Gas Law
An equation of state for an ideal gas, represented as PV=nRT.
Real Gas Behavior
Deviations from the ideal gas laws observed at high pressures and low temperatures.
Gibbs Free Energy
A thermodynamic potential used to predict the spontaneity of a process at constant temperature and pressure.
Calorimetry
The measurement of heat transfer in a chemical reaction or physical change.
Latent Heat
The heat absorbed or released during a phase change without changing the temperature.
Thermodynamic Equilibrium
A state in which there are no net macroscopic flows of matter or energy.