Soviet vocab

varangians

vikings who went east, used river system in west europe and went to veliky novogorod and places like baku, constantinople.

veliky novgorod

varangian settlement, cradle of russian civilization. you can store boats there, and it’s a fortified place.

rurik

founded first great state in the russian lands. the way he became the leader is documented in the primary chronicle.

Kievan rus

first east slavic state

The primary chronicle

medieval text about rurik. states that the people of rus came to him and asked him to be the leader because there was no order. missionaries went to try and convert rus to islam, but rus wanted to stay and drink.

yarlyk

the right to gather tribute from mongol khan. whoever had the piece of paper could collect tribute. they didn’t want to give it to anyone powerful though. so they chose moscow, a bummy place and the yarlyk gave it the rise to fame. this is how princes of moscow became powerful.

the kremlin

kremlin=fort. THE kremlin is the one in moscow. it was done by an italian architect bc princes of moscow were so rich from yarlyk. it’s a red wall with towers.

st basil’s cathedral

building to commemorate the overthrow of mongol empire. most famous building in russia outside of russia, quite a small church and very detailed.

red square

square in moscow with lots of things

Ivan IV the Terrible

he was a conqueror, he conquers kazan and overthrows the mongol khanate. he is referred to as Ivan Grozny, grozny meaning terrible, because he was so hardcore and brutal. waged war on russian state itself.

oprichnik

Ivan the terrible’s personal army who had wolf pelts under their saddles. killed and tortured people for the fear of treason.

Boris Godunov

after ivan the terrible died, he didn’t have an heir to his throne because he killed his son. so instead came a regency, because his other son was some three-year old so not old enough to rule. boris godunov instead ruled for him. he was a clever guy but nobody would listen to him because he was not the actual ruler.

time of troubles

famine and wars but rurik dynasty ended and romanov ascended

minin and pozharsky

the russians were tired of being ruled by foreigners so a patriotic movement from the east arose. pozharsky was a nobleman wielding a sword. minin was a merchant butcher with some leadership skills. they took back russia.

Tsar Pushka

largest cannon ever cast. it’s not military grade but it was used for minin and pozharsky to shoot the polish pretender on russian throne back to poland

The Romanov Dynasty

1613, a dynasty that ruled over russia till the early 1900s.

Yermak Timofeyevich

conquered kasliq, spear in one hand and a weapon in the other. he conquered siberia because they had rifles and the locals had bows and arrows. he was a terror inciter and conquered the eastern side of the ural mountains.

Siberia

anything east of the ural mountains. known for pelt collecting, which usually made people rich. it was a brutal land, so lots of illegal activity happening there, such as murders and trading of women. the native people of siberia were terrorized too and forced to give up pelts. new cities were founded on rivers.

Katorga

sentence of forced labor. you are sent off to siberia to do work for the state as a prison sentence. then you are released and are left to live in siberia and given land to be peasant farmers. lots of russian projects were completed this way.

Taiga

forests. russia has a lot of lumber, and the houses can be made of wood in siberia.

Steppe

lack of trees, lots of grasslands instead. it’s a very flat, very grassy area. livestock is easy to cultivate here, but water is the biggest problem since there aren’t many rivers around.

Buryats

mongolian-related ethnic group

Kalmycks

only mongolic ethnic group living in europe, only primary buddhist group.

Tundra

region of rolling hills without trees due to cold temperatures. moss grows quite a lot there.

Samoyed

a slur for the indigenous people of nenets autonomous okrug. they live on the sea and in islands, they live in things that looks like teepees and they herd reindeer that eat moss. then they eat the reindeer for protein and nutrients. the russians believe this to be barbaric, and they are called the self eaters (cannibals).

Tsar Bomba

largest ever nuclear test in open air. biggest bomb to be exploded in open air. you can level a city with a smaller bomb.

Nenets Autonomous Okrug

Area of land in the north of russia, underneath novaya zemlya, east side of white sea. the main business here is reindeer herding. a lot of moss grows here, which the reindeer eat. the indigenous peoples follow the reindeer around and eat them for nutrients. largest ever nuclear test in open air. has a solid oil industry.

Chukchi

these people have settled the very far eastern point of russia. they also live in alaska, the bering strait being their homeland. they are the butt of jokes in russia as they are considered country bumpkins. they use sunglasses as technology.

Rasputitsa

this period of time is during the spring on the steppe. when it snows on the steppe, there is a lot of snow. when the snow melts, with nowhere to really go, it turns the soil to mud. the roads turn into mud. there would be fighting in the winter and then once the rasputitsa happens, nothing can happen because of the amount of mud. everything continues in summer once it dries up.

Sakha Republic

it is about the same size as india, but less than a million people live these. yakutia is now a site for mining.

Pyotr I “The Great”

first emperor of russia. ruled with catherine I not catherine the great. he is credited with modernizing and expanding the russian state

Old Believers

these people are the traditionalists with traditional russian orthodox religious practices. they avoided the reforms in the mid 1600s

The “Bronze Horseman”

peter the great statue in senate square, st petersburg. meant to uplift his accomplishments of conqueror and reformist. catherine the great commissioned it, her husband’s grandfather technically

Ekaterina II “The Great”

catherine the great. she expanded russia, was of german origin, and ruled over the people

Pugachev Rebellion

(1773–1775) was a massive peasant uprising in Russia led by Yemelyan Pugachev, who falsely claimed to be the deceased Emperor Peter III. The rebellion, fueled by widespread discontent among serfs, Cossacks, and ethnic minorities, posed a serious threat to Catherine the Great’s rule before being brutally suppressed by the Russian army.

The Decembrists

were a group of Russian military officers who led a failed uprising in December 1825, seeking to establish a constitutional monarchy or a republic after the death of Tsar Alexander I. Motivated by Enlightenment ideals and disillusionment with autocracy, their revolt was quickly crushed, and its leaders were executed or exiled to Siberia.

The Intelligentsia

were a social class of educated thinkers, writers, and critics who emerged in the 19th century and played a key role in shaping political and cultural debates. Often critical of the autocracy and social injustices, they were influential in promoting reform, revolutionary ideas, and national identity. Their divisions—between liberal reformers and radical revolutionaries—would later influence major movements in Russian history.

Fathers and Sons

by Ivan Turgenev portrays Russia in the 1850s, a country caught between old aristocratic traditions and the rise of a new, nihilistic youth. The novel reflects the social and ideological rift between generations, symbolizing the tension between the conservative rural gentry and the emerging radical intellectuals who challenge established norms.

Muzhik

is a Russian peasant, typically referring to a male serf or rural laborer before the emancipation of the serfs in 1861. Muzhiks were the backbone of agricultural life in imperial Russia, often living in poverty and bound to the land they worked for noble landlords. They symbolize the traditional, humble, and enduring spirit of rural Russia.

1861= abolition of Serfdom

occurred in 1861 under Tsar Alexander II, freeing over 20 million serfs from legal bondage to landowners. While it was a major reform aimed at modernizing Russia, many former serfs received poor land and remained economically dependent, leading to widespread dissatisfaction. The emancipation marked a turning point in Russian society, sparking further calls for social and political change.

Aleksandr II “Tsar-Liberator”

ruled Russia from 1855 to 1881 and is best known for emancipating the serfs in 1861, a landmark reform aimed at modernizing the empire. He also introduced judicial, military, and educational reforms to reduce inequality and stimulate progress. Despite his efforts, rising revolutionary movements and dissatisfaction with the pace of change led to his assassination in 1881.

The Great Reforms

a series of sweeping changes implemented by Tsar Alexander II in the 1860s to modernize Russia and address social, legal, and economic issues. Key reforms included the emancipation of the serfs, the establishment of local self-government (zemstvos), judicial reforms for fairer trials, and military modernization. These reforms aimed to strengthen the Russian state but also exposed deep societal tensions that fueled later unrest.

Zemstvo

a form of local self-government introduced in Russia in 1864 as part of Tsar Alexander II’s Great Reforms. Comprised of elected representatives from the nobility, peasants, and townspeople, zemstvos were responsible for local issues like education, healthcare, and infrastructure. While limited in power, they marked a significant step toward grassroots civic participation in imperial Russia.

Going to the People

a populist movement in 1870s Russia, where idealistic young intellectuals left cities to live among peasants, hoping to inspire a socialist revolution through education and activism. They believed the peasantry was the key to transforming society, but were often met with suspicion or indifference. The movement largely failed, yet it laid the groundwork for future revolutionary efforts.

The People’s Will

a radical revolutionary organization in late 19th-century Russia that sought to overthrow the Tsarist regime through acts of political violence, including assassination. Frustrated by the slow pace of reform, they believed terrorism was the only way to force change. In 1881, they successfully assassinated Tsar Alexander II, but the act led to harsh crackdowns and the group's eventual decline.

Konstantin Pobedonostsev

a powerful Russian statesman and advisor to three tsars, most notably Alexander III, and a leading figure in promoting autocracy, Orthodoxy, and nationalism. As Ober-Procurator of the Holy Synod, he opposed liberal reforms, democracy, and secular education, believing that stability depended on strong, centralized rule. His conservative influence shaped Russian policy in the late 19th century, reinforcing repression and resistance to modernization.

Trans-Siberian Railroad

completed in the early 20th century, is a vast railway network connecting Moscow to Vladivostok, spanning over 5,700 miles across Russia. Initiated in the 1890s under Tsar Alexander III, it was designed to unify the empire, promote economic development, and strengthen control over Siberia and the Far East. The railroad played a crucial role in trade, migration, and military logistics, transforming Russia’s economic and strategic landscape.

Battle of Tsushima

fought in 1905 during the Russo-Japanese War, was a decisive naval engagement in which Japan’s fleet, under Admiral Togo, destroyed most of Russia’s Baltic Fleet. It marked the first time an Asian power defeated a major European navy, signaling Japan’s emergence as a world power. The defeat was a major blow to Russian prestige and contributed to domestic unrest leading to the 1905 Revolution.

Gregorii Gapon

a Russian Orthodox priest and labor leader who organized the peaceful workers’ march to the Winter Palace in 1905, which ended in the Bloody Sunday massacre. Initially seen as a champion of the workers, his later revealed ties to the secret police (Okhrana) damaged his reputation. His actions helped spark the 1905 Revolution, highlighting the growing unrest among Russia's working class.

Bloody Sunday

occurred on January 22, 1905, when peaceful Russian workers, led by Father Gapon, marched to the Winter Palace in St. Petersburg to present a petition to Tsar Nicholas II. Imperial troops fired on the unarmed crowd, killing and wounding hundreds. The massacre shattered faith in the tsar and ignited the 1905 Revolution, marking a turning point in Russian revolutionary sentiment.

1905 Revolution

a wave of political and social unrest across the Russian Empire, sparked by Bloody Sunday and fueled by widespread dissatisfaction with autocracy, poor working conditions, and the Russo-Japanese War defeat. It involved mass strikes, peasant uprisings, and mutinies, forcing Tsar Nicholas II to issue the October Manifesto, which promised limited reforms and a national legislature (the Duma). Although the revolution was ultimately suppressed, it exposed deep cracks in the Tsarist regime and set the stage for future revolutions.

The Duma

a legislative assembly established in Russia after the 1905 Revolution, as part of Tsar Nicholas II’s October Manifesto. Intended to give the people a voice in government, it was limited in power, with the tsar retaining the ability to dissolve it and override its decisions. While it marked a step toward constitutional monarchy, repeated restrictions and manipulation by the regime undermined its effectiveness and credibility.

Pyotr Stolypin

was a Russian Prime Minister and reformer under Tsar Nicholas II, known for his efforts to stabilize the empire after the 1905 Revolution. He implemented agrarian reforms aimed at creating a class of prosperous peasant landowners and used harsh measures to suppress revolutionary activity, including executions—earning the nickname "Stolypin’s necktie." His mix of reform and repression made him a controversial figure, and he was assassinated in 1911.

The Stolypin Necktie

a grim nickname for the hangman’s noose, referring to the widespread executions carried out under Prime Minister Pyotr Stolypin during his crackdown on revolutionaries after 1905. It symbolized the harsh repression used to restore order in the Russian Empire. While intended to deter unrest, the term reflected public resentment toward Stolypin’s brutal methods.

Stolypin Wagon

a special type of railroad car used in early 20th-century Russia to transport both settlers to Siberia and political prisoners to remote labor camps. Named after Pyotr Stolypin, it symbolized both his efforts to promote agrarian reform through peasant resettlement and his repressive policies against dissent. The wagons were often cramped and harsh, especially for prisoners, reflecting the dual nature of Stolypin’s legacy.

Wager on the Strong and Sober

Pyotr Stolypin’s policy aimed at creating a stable, prosperous class of peasant landowners loyal to the Tsar. By encouraging individual land ownership and breaking up communal farming (the mir), Stolypin hoped these successful peasants would support the monarchy and resist revolutionary ideas. It reflected his belief that social stability could be achieved through economic reform rather than solely through repression.

Grigorii Rasputin

a Russian mystic and self-proclaimed holy man who gained significant influence over Tsar Nicholas II and his wife, Alexandra, particularly due to his ability to ease the suffering of their hemophiliac son, Alexei. His closeness to the royal family and involvement in political affairs sparked public outrage and symbolized the corruption and decay of the imperial court. Rasputin's assassination in 1916 by nobles reflected the deepening crisis facing the Romanov dynasty on the eve of revolution.

Provisional Government

a temporary authority established in Russia after the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II in March 1917, intended to lead the country until a constituent assembly could be elected. Led by liberal and moderate socialist figures, it struggled to address key issues like land reform, war, and food shortages. Its failure to withdraw from World War I and respond effectively to public demands led to its overthrow by the Bolsheviks in the October Revolution.

Aleksandr Kerensky

key political leader during the Russian Revolution of 1917, serving as Minister of War and later as head of the Provisional Government. A member of the Socialist Revolutionary Party, he tried to balance liberal and socialist demands while continuing Russia's involvement in World War I. His inability to address key issues like land reform and military collapse led to a loss of support and his overthrow by the Bolsheviks in the October Revolution.

February Revolution

a mass uprising in Petrograd (now St. Petersburg) that led to the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II and the end of centuries of Romanov rule. Driven by food shortages, war fatigue, and public discontent, workers, soldiers, and citizens took to the streets demanding change. The revolution resulted in the establishment of the Provisional Government, marking the collapse of the Russian monarchy.

October Revolution

a Bolshevik-led uprising that overthrew the Provisional Government and established a socialist regime under Vladimir Lenin. Backed by workers, soldiers, and peasants, the Bolsheviks seized key locations in Petrograd with little resistance. This marked the beginning of Soviet rule and the foundation of the world’s first communist state.

Diaspora

describes those who fled the country after the 1917 Revolution or during periods of repression, including intellectuals, nobles, and political opponents. These émigrés formed communities abroad that preserved Russian culture and opposed the Soviet regime. lots of them settled in france, playing the piano and making music

Ashkenaz

Jewish communities that originated in Central and Eastern Europe, particularly in Germany, Poland, and Russia. Ashkenazi Jews developed distinct religious customs, cultural traditions, and the Yiddish language. Over centuries, they became a significant and influential part of European Jewry, often facing persecution and migration, especially during times of political upheaval and anti-Semitic violence.

Pale of Settlement

region in western Russia where Jews were legally allowed to live under the Tsarist regime from the late 18th century until the early 20th century. It included parts of modern-day Poland, Ukraine, Belarus, and Lithuania, and excluded Jews from residing in major Russian cities without special permission. Life in the Pale was marked by poverty, discrimination, and frequent pogroms, which contributed to mass Jewish emigration.

Shtetl

a small town with a large Jewish population in Eastern Europe, particularly within the Pale of Settlement. These communities were centers of Jewish religious, cultural, and social life, often marked by close-knit traditions, Yiddish language, and modest living conditions. Shtetls were frequently subject to poverty and anti-Semitic violence but also served as vibrant hubs of Jewish identity and resilience.

Haskalah

Jewish Enlightenment, was an intellectual movement in 18th- and 19th-century Europe that encouraged Jews to embrace secular education, integrate into broader society, and adopt Enlightenment values while maintaining their cultural identity. Originating in Germany and spreading to Eastern Europe, it promoted reason, science, and reform of traditional Jewish life. The movement laid the groundwork for modern Jewish thought and various political and cultural movements, including Zionism and Reform Judaism.

Reform Judaism

a modern Jewish movement that emerged in 19th-century Germany, advocating for the adaptation of Jewish traditions to fit contemporary life and values. It emphasizes ethical teachings over ritual observance, supports gender equality, and allows flexibility in interpreting Jewish law. Reform Judaism seeks to balance Jewish identity with integration into broader society, making it one of the most progressive branches of Judaism.

Yiddish

a historical language of the Ashkenazi Jews, combining elements of German with Hebrew, Aramaic, and Slavic languages. Written in the Hebrew alphabet, it was widely spoken in Central and Eastern Europe before the Holocaust and served as a vibrant medium for Jewish literature, theater, and everyday life. Today, Yiddish is preserved through cultural revival efforts and remains spoken in some Orthodox and Hasidic communities.

Protocols of the Elders of Zion

fabricated anti-Semitic text that falsely claims to reveal a Jewish plot for world domination. First published in Russia in the early 20th century, it was used to justify persecution of Jews and spread conspiracy theories globally. Despite being thoroughly debunked, it has continued to fuel anti-Semitism and hate propaganda.

Pogroms

jewish massacres

Kishnev Pogrom 1903

big jewish massacre

Beilis Trial

notorious anti-Semitic court case in Kiev, Russia, in 1913, in which Mendel Beilis, a Jewish factory worker, was falsely accused of ritually murdering a Christian boy. Despite the lack of evidence and widespread international condemnation, the Russian government supported the prosecution to inflame anti-Jewish sentiment. Beilis was ultimately acquitted, but the trial exposed the deep-rooted anti-Semitism in the Russian Empire.

Zionism

jewish people wanting their own state

The Bund

a secular Jewish socialist party founded in the Russian Empire in 1897 to advocate for the rights of Jewish workers. It promoted socialism, Yiddish culture, and Jewish self-defense, while opposing both Zionism and assimilation. The Bund played a key role in labor movements and revolutionary activity, particularly in Eastern Europe, before being suppressed by both Soviet and Nazi regimes.

The Sejm

historical name for the parliament in Poland, dating back to the 15th century, and it remains the lower house of Poland's legislature today. In the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, the Sejm included representatives of the nobility and had significant legislative authority, though its effectiveness was often hindered by the liberum veto, which allowed any member to dissolve proceedings. The Sejm played a central role in Polish political life and governance, both historically and in the modern era.

Liberum Veto

political practice in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth allowing any member of the Sejm (parliament) to end a session and nullify all its decisions by a single vote. Intended to promote unanimous agreement and protect noble freedom, it often led to legislative paralysis and foreign manipulation. Over time, it severely weakened the state and contributed to its eventual partitions in the late 18th century.

Poland is not yet lost

opening line and title of the Polish national anthem, also known as Mazurek Dąbrowskiego. Written in 1797 by Józef Wybicki, it expressed hope and resilience during a time when Poland had been partitioned and erased from the map by neighboring powers. The anthem symbolizes the enduring spirit of the Polish people and their determination to regain independence.

Partitions of Poland

three divisions of Polish territory in 1772, 1793, and 1795 by Russia, Prussia, and Austria, which ultimately erased Poland from the map of Europe for 123 years. Each partition reduced Polish sovereignty until the state ceased to exist entirely. These events were driven by the weakness of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and the ambitions of its powerful neighbors.

For your freedom and ours

a famous Polish slogan expressing solidarity with other nations in their struggles for liberty, while also asserting Poland's own fight for independence. It originated during the 19th century, particularly in the context of Polish uprisings against imperial powers like Russia. The phrase symbolizes Poland's tradition of linking its national cause with broader ideals of freedom and justice worldwide.

great emigration

mass exodus of Polish political elites, soldiers, and intellectuals following the failed November Uprising against Russian rule in 1830–1831. Many settled in Western Europe, particularly France, forming influential exile communities dedicated to advocating for Polish independence. This diaspora played a key role in preserving Polish culture and supporting future uprisings through activism, literature, and diplomacy.

Vilnius

capital city of lithuania and polish lithuanian commonwealth. lots of powers wanted control over this area

lithuania, you are like health

we only miss you when we are sick

Jozef Pilsudski

Polish military leader and statesman who played a key role in restoring Poland's independence in 1918 after over a century of partitions. He served as Chief of State and later as de facto leader, guiding Poland through its early years and defeating Soviet forces in the 1920 Battle of Warsaw. Piłsudski is remembered as a national hero and a central figure in shaping modern Poland.

Oath Crisis

during World War I, when soldiers of the Polish Legions, led by Józef Piłsudski, refused to swear loyalty to the German and Austro-Hungarian emperors. Piłsudski saw the oath as a betrayal of Polish independence, leading to his arrest and the internment of many of his followers. The crisis marked a turning point in Polish-German relations and strengthened Piłsudski’s image as a defender of Polish sovereignty.

Ignacy Paderewski

Polish pianist, composer, and statesman who used his international fame to advocate for Polish independence during and after World War I. He played a key diplomatic role at the Paris Peace Conference and served briefly as Poland’s Prime Minister and Foreign Minister in 1919. Paderewski is celebrated not only for his musical talent but also for his passionate patriotism and contributions to Poland’s reestablishment as a sovereign state.

Second polish republic

independent Polish state established in 1918 after World War I, following more than a century of partitions by Russia, Prussia, and Austria. It faced numerous challenges, including border conflicts, economic instability, and political divisions, but managed to unify diverse territories into a single nation. The republic lasted until 1939, when it was invaded by Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union, triggering World War II.

Polish Soviet war 1919-1921

(1919–1921) was a conflict between the newly reestablished Second Polish Republic and Soviet Russia over control of borderlands in Eastern Europe. Poland, led by Józef Piłsudski, aimed to secure its eastern frontiers, while the Soviets sought to spread revolution westward. The war culminated in Poland's victory at the Battle of Warsaw (1920), often called the “Miracle on the Vistula,” and ended with the Treaty of Riga, which granted Poland significant eastern territories.

Battle of Warsaw

fought in August 1920 during the Polish-Soviet War, was a decisive victory for Poland that stopped the Soviet advance into Europe. Led by Józef Piłsudski, Polish forces launched a successful counteroffensive that pushed back the Red Army and preserved Poland's independence. Often called the “Miracle on the Vistula,” the battle is considered one of the most important in European history for halting the spread of communism westward.

Vladimir Lenin

revolutionary leader

“What is to be done?”

political pamphlet written by Vladimir Lenin in 1902, outlining his vision for a revolutionary Marxist party in Russia. In it, Lenin argues that a disciplined, centralized party of professional revolutionaries is essential to lead the working class to overthrow the autocracy. The work became foundational for Bolshevik ideology and shaped the structure of the Soviet Communist Party.

Leon Trotsky

war leader

“All Power to the Soviets”

“Peace, Land, Bread”

lenins slogan

“Neither War nor Peace”

a phrase used by Leon Trotsky during the 1917–1918 negotiations with Germany at Brest-Litovsk, reflecting his refusal to sign a formal peace treaty while also unwilling to continue fighting. His aim was to stall for time, hoping for revolution to spread in Germany, but the strategy failed when Germany resumed its military advance. This forced the Bolsheviks to accept harsh terms in the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, ceding large territories to end Russia’s involvement in World War I.

Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

russia cedes lands

Cheka

Soviet Union’s first secret police organization, established by the Bolsheviks in 1917 to suppress counter-revolution and political dissent. Under leaders like Felix Dzerzhinsky, it carried out mass arrests, torture, and executions during the Red Terror. The Cheka laid the foundation for later Soviet security agencies, including the NKVD and KGB.

Russian Famine of 1921-22

New Economic Policy

Union of Soviet Socialist Republics

Russian Social Federal Socialist Republic