Psychology paper 1

Animal research/animal models

Using animals to investigate biological processes that may help explain human behaviour. Strength

Animal research ethics

Researchers should minimize harm and distress, use alternatives when possible, use the minimum number of animals needed, and justify the scientific value of the research.

Biological reductionism

The idea that complex behaviour can be explained through simpler biological factors such as genes, neurotransmitters, hormones or brain structures. Strength

Brain imaging

Techniques used to investigate brain structure or activity. They help researchers connect brain processes with behaviour but may have limitations such as not directly measuring behaviour or neurons.

fMRI

Measures changes in blood oxygenation to show brain activity. Strength

MRI

Produces detailed images of brain structure. It can show structural differences or damage but does not directly show moment-to-moment brain activity.

PET scan

Uses a radioactive tracer to measure metabolic activity in the brain. It can show brain activity and chemical processes but involves radiation.

Chemical messenger

A chemical that transmits information in the nervous or endocrine system and can influence behaviour. Neurotransmitters act between neurons; hormones are released into the bloodstream.

Dopamine

A neurotransmitter involved in reward, motivation, movement and learning.

Serotonin

A neurotransmitter involved in mood, sleep and other processes.

Chemical messengers and behaviour

Changes in chemical messenger activity can influence behaviour and cognition by changing communication between cells or affecting brain/body processes.

Diathesis-stress model

Behaviour or psychological disorders can result from an interaction between a biological vulnerability and environmental stress. Diathesis = predisposition/vulnerability; stress = environmental trigger. Key idea

Genetic inheritance

The transmission of genetic information from parents to offspring. Genes can influence behaviour, but complex human behaviour is usually influenced by both genes and environment.

Genetic determinism

The idea that genes completely determine behaviour. This is too simplistic for most complex human behaviours because environmental factors also matter.

Nature and nurture

Human behaviour is generally influenced by an interaction between genetic and environmental factors.

Localization of function

The idea that specific brain areas are associated with specific functions. Strength

Broca's area

Brain area associated with speech production.

Wernicke's area

Brain area associated with language comprehension.

Motor cortex

Controls voluntary movement.

Somatosensory cortex

Processes sensory information from the body.

Visual cortex

Processes visual information.

Neuroplasticity

The brain's ability to change its structure or function because of experience, learning or damage. New connections can form or strengthen, and other areas may sometimes take over functions after damage.

Neuroplasticity strength/limitation

Strength

Neurotransmission

The process by which neurons communicate using electrical and chemical signals. An electrical signal causes neurotransmitters to be released into the synapse, where they bind to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron; they may then be broken down or taken back through reuptake.

Synapse

The small gap between two neurons.

Presynaptic neuron

The neuron that sends the signal.

Postsynaptic neuron

The neuron that receives the signal.

Receptor

A protein on the postsynaptic neuron that a neurotransmitter binds to.

Reuptake

The neurotransmitter is taken back into the presynaptic neuron.

Agonist

A substance that increases or mimics the effect of a neurotransmitter.

Antagonist

A substance that blocks or reduces the effect of a neurotransmitter.

Anchoring bias

The tendency to rely too heavily on the first piece of information encountered when making a decision. Strength/use

Anchoring example

A high initial price can make a later lower price seem cheaper or more reasonable.

Classical conditioning

Learning through association between two stimuli. A neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus until it becomes a conditioned stimulus that produces a conditioned response.

Classical conditioning terms

UCS = naturally produces a response; UCR = natural response; NS = initially does not produce the target response; CS = previously neutral stimulus that becomes associated with the UCS; CR = learned response to the CS.

Classical conditioning application

Behaviour can be changed by creating or weakening associations between stimuli. For example, repeated exposure to a feared stimulus without a negative outcome can weaken a learned fear.

Cognitive load theory

The idea that working memory has limited capacity, so too much information can interfere with learning. Intrinsic load = difficulty of the material; extraneous load = unnecessary difficulty caused by presentation; germane load = mental effort used to build useful understanding.

Cognitive load application

Learning can be improved by reducing unnecessary information, organizing material clearly and presenting manageable amounts of information.

Multi-store model (MMM)

Memory consists of sensory memory, short-term memory and long-term memory. Attention transfers information from sensory memory to STM, and rehearsal can help transfer information to LTM.

Sensory memory

Very brief storage of sensory information.

Short-term memory (STM)

Limited-capacity memory store that holds information for a short time.

Long-term memory (LTM)

Long-lasting memory store with very large capacity.

Maintenance rehearsal

Repeating information to keep it in STM and potentially transfer it to LTM.

MMM strength/limitation

Strength

Confirmation bias

The tendency to search for, interpret and remember information that supports existing beliefs while ignoring contradictory evidence. It can lead to inaccurate judgments and poor decisions.

Confirmation bias example

A person who believes a product is good may focus mainly on positive reviews and ignore negative ones.

Dual processing theory

The idea that decision-making involves two systems. System 1 is fast, automatic and intuitive; System 2 is slower, deliberate and analytical.

System 1 vs System 2

System 1 is fast and requires little effort but is more vulnerable to biases; System 2 is slower and requires more effort but allows more careful reasoning.

Dual processing application

People can make better decisions by slowing down and deliberately checking an intuitive System 1 judgment using System 2.

Operant conditioning

Learning in which behaviour is influenced by its consequences. Reinforcement increases behaviour; punishment decreases behaviour.

Positive reinforcement

Adding something pleasant to increase a behaviour, such as giving a student praise for completing homework.

Negative reinforcement

Removing something unpleasant to increase a behaviour, such as removing an annoying alarm when someone completes a task.

Positive punishment

Adding something unpleasant to decrease a behaviour.

Negative punishment

Removing something pleasant to decrease a behaviour.

Operant conditioning application

Rewards can increase desired behaviour, while consequences can reduce unwanted behaviour.

Schema theory

A schema is a mental framework that organizes knowledge and expectations. Schemas develop through experience and influence how people interpret and remember new information.

Schema strength/limitation

Strength

Cognitive dissonance

The uncomfortable state caused by conflict between beliefs, attitudes or behaviour. People try to reduce it by changing behaviour, changing beliefs or justifying their behaviour.

Cognitive dissonance example

A person believes exercise is important but avoids exercising, creating inconsistency that they may reduce by changing their behaviour or making excuses.

Compliance

Changing behaviour because of a request from another person or group.

Foot-in-the-door

Agreeing to a small request first makes someone more likely to agree to a larger request later.

Door-in-the-face

After refusing a large request, a person is more likely to agree to a smaller request.

Lowballing

A person agrees to a deal and then additional costs or disadvantages are revealed.

Conformity

Changing behaviour or beliefs to match those of a group. Informational social influence = conforming because we believe others have correct information; normative social influence = conforming to be accepted or avoid rejection.

Conformity example

A student originally chooses answer B but changes to A because everyone else chooses A.

Cultural dimensions

Cultural dimensions are frameworks for describing differences in cultural values and behaviour. Individualism emphasizes independence and personal goals; collectivism emphasizes group goals, relationships and social harmony.

Individualism vs collectivism

Individualistic cultures tend to emphasize personal choices and achievement, while collectivist cultures tend to emphasize group needs, family relationships and social harmony.

Emic approach

Studying behaviour from within a specific culture using concepts meaningful to that culture. Strength

Etic approach

Studying behaviour using concepts or methods that can be applied across cultures. Strength

Emic vs etic

Emic = understand behaviour from inside one culture; etic = compare behaviour across cultures using broader concepts.

Enculturation

The process of learning and adopting the values, beliefs, behaviours and norms of one's culture through family, education, peers, media and society.

Enculturation and behaviour

Cultural learning can influence how people communicate, think, behave and understand what is considered normal.

Acculturation

The psychological and cultural change that occurs when people interact with another culture, often after immigration or an extended stay.

Berry's acculturation model

Four strategies based on maintaining the original culture and interacting with the new culture

Assimilation

Adopting the new culture while largely giving up the original culture.

Integration

Maintaining the original culture while also participating in the new culture.

Separation

Maintaining the original culture while avoiding interaction with the new culture.

Marginalization

Having little connection with either the original culture or the new culture.

Social identity theory (SIT)

Part of a person's identity comes from membership in social groups. People categorize themselves into groups, identify with groups and compare their group with others.

Social categorization

Putting people into social groups.

Social identification

Adopting the identity and values of a group we belong to.

Social comparison

Comparing our group with other groups.

In-group

Our own group.

Out-group

A group we do not identify with.

In-group bias

The tendency to favour members of our own group.

SIT application

Creating a shared identity or reducing divisions between groups can help reduce prejudice and conflict.

Social learning theory (SLT)

People can learn behaviour by observing and imitating others. The main processes are attention, retention, reproduction and motivation.

Attention

Someone must notice the behaviour before they can learn it.

Retention

Someone must remember the observed behaviour.

Reproduction

Someone must be capable of performing the behaviour.

Motivation

Someone needs a reason or incentive to reproduce the behaviour.

Vicarious reinforcement

Learning from seeing another person receive a reward or punishment for their behaviour.

SLT application

Positive role models who are rewarded for desirable behaviour can encourage others to imitate that behaviour.

Bandura Bobo doll study:

Showed that children can learn aggressive behaviour by observing and imitating a model. Connects to: Social Learning Theory (SLT) — Sociocultural approach.

Asch conformity study:

Showed that group pressure can influence people's judgments and lead people to conform. Connects to: Conformity — Sociocultural approach.

Milgram obedience study:

Showed that authority can strongly influence human behaviour and lead people to obey. Connects to: Compliance/obedience — Sociocultural approach.

Loftus and Palmer:

Showed that leading questions can influence people's memory of an event. Connects to: Schema theory/memory — Cognitive approach.
Bartlett War of the Ghosts: Showed that people's existing schemas can influence how they remember information. Connects to: Schema Theory — Cognitive approach.

Craik and Lockhart:

Showed that deeper processing of information leads to better and longer-lasting memory. Connects to: Levels of Processing — Cognitive approach.

Maguire taxi driver study:

Showed that experience and learning were associated with differences in brain structure, particularly the hippocampus. Connects to: Neuroplasticity — Biological approach.

Rosenzweig environmental enrichment study:

Showed that experience and environment can affect brain development and neural connections. Connects to: Neuroplasticity — Biological approach.