A&P 2 Lab Midterm

What are the four principle mechanisms of communication between cells?

Gap junctions
Neurotransmitters
Paracrines
Hormones

what are gap junctions

pores in cell membrane allow signaling molecules, nutrients, and electrolytes to move from cell to cell

what are Neurotransmitters

chemicals released from neurons to travel across synaptic cleft to second cell

what are Paracrines

chemicals secreted into tissue fluids to affect nearby cells

what are Hormones

chemical messengers that travel in the bloodstream to stimulate physiological responses in other tissues and organs

what does the endocrine system consist of

glands, tissues, and cells that secrete hormones

what is endocrinology

the study of this system and the diagnosis and treatment of its disorders

what are the endocrine glands

organs that are sources of hormones

caharcteristics of the exocrine glands

• Have ducts; carry secretion to an epithelial surface or the mucosa of the digestive tract: “external secretion”

• Extracellular effects (food digestion)

characteristics of the Endocrine glands

• No ducts

• Contain dense, fenestrated capillary networks which allow easy uptake of hormones into blood stream

• “Internal secretions”

• Intracellular effects such as altering target cell metabolism

Both the nervous and endocrine system serve for what?

internal communication

how is the speed and persistence of response in the nervous system

reacts quickly, stops quickly

how is the speed and persistence of response in the endocrine system

reacts slowly (seconds or days), effect may continue for days or longer

how is the adaptation to long-term stimuli in the nervous system

response declines (adapts quickly)

how is the adaptation to long-term stimuli in the endocrine system

Response persists (adapts slowly)

how is the area identification effect in the nervous system

Targeted and specific (one organ)

how is the area identification effect in the endocrine system

General, widespread effects (many organs)

what are Target organs or target cells

those organs or cells that have receptors for a hormone and can respond to it

Some target cells possess enzymes that…

convert a circulating hormone to its more active form

what is the hypothalamus:

shaped like a flattened funnel, forms floor and walls of third ventricle of brain

What does the hypothalamus do?

Regulates primitive functions from water balance and thermoregulation to sex drive and childbirth

What carries out the functions of the hypothalamus?

The pituitary gland

where does the pituitary gland (hypophysis) suspend from

the hypothalamus by a stalk (infundibulum)

What is the shape of the pituitary gland?

Kidney bean

Where is the pituitary gland housed in the body?

In sella turcica of the sphenoid bone

What two structures make up the pituitary gland?

Anterior pituitary and posterior pituitary

what does the anterior pituitary make up

the anterior three-quarters of pituitary

How is the anterior pituitary linked to the hypothalamus?

by blood vessels of the hypophyseal portal system

What hormones regulate anterior pituitary cells?

Hypothalamic hormones

what does the posterior pituitary make up

the posterior on-quarter of the pituitary

What type of tissue is the posterior pituitary?

Nerve tissue, not a true gland

What happens to nerve cell bodies in hypothalamus?

pass down the stalk as hypothalamo-hypohyseal tract and end in posterior lobe

What do hypothalamic neurons do?

secrete hormones that are stored in neurohypophysis until released into blood

How many hormones are produced in the hypothalamus

Eight

What hormones are produced in the hypothalamus

Gonatropin-release hormone
Thyrotropin-releasing hormone

Corticotropin-releasing hormone

Prolactin-inhibiting hormone

Growth hormone-releasing hormone

Somatostatin

Oxytocin

Antidiuretic hormone

What six hormones regulate the anterior pituitary?

Gonatropin-release hormone
Thyrotropin-releasing hormone

Corticotropin-releasing hormone

Prolactin-inhibiting hormone

Growth hormone-releasing hormone

Somatostatin

What two hormones regulate the posterior pituitary?

Oxytocin

Antidiuretic hormone

what does the circulatory system consist of

the heart, blood vessels, and blood

what does the cardiovascular system refer to

only to the heart and blood vessels

what is hematology

study of blood

What is the fundamental purpose of the circulatory system?

to transport substances

What is the purpose of blood?

the liquid transport medium

What is the purpose of blood vessels

deliver blood to body tissues and returns it to the heart

What is the purpose of the heart

the pump that keeps blood flowing

The three specific functions of the circulatory system

Transport

Protection

Regulation

what is blood

a liquid connective tissue consisting of cells and extracellular matrix

what is plasma

matrix of blood; clear, light yellow fluid

what are formed elements

cells and cell fragments

what are erythrocytes

red blood cells (RBCs)

what are Platelets

fragments of certain bone marrow cells

what are Leukocytes

white blood cells (WBCs)

What are the WBCs classified as granulocytes?

neutrophils

eosinophils

basophils

What are the WBCs classified as agranulocytes?

lymphocytes

monocytes

How many liters of blood do adults have?

4 to 6 liters

What is the most abundant solute in the plasma?

proteins

What are the three major categories of proteins?

albumins

globulins

fibrinogen

The liver produces all major proteins except

gamma globulins

What produces gamma gobulins

plasma cells

leukocytes form and function

• Least abundant formed element and transient in bloodstream

• Have a conspicuous nucleus

• Retain their organelles for protein synthesis

• Granules in cytoplasm

All WBCs have lysosomes called

nonspecific granules

Granulocytes have

specific granules

Basophils secrete

histamine and heparin

Monocytes leave the bloodstream and transform into

macrophages

Blood types are based on

interactions between antigens and antibodies

what are antigens

complex molecules on surface of cell membrane

what are Agglutinogens

antigens on the surface of the RBC (red blood cell) that trigger agglutination (clumping)

what are Antibodies

proteins that bind to antigens, marking them for destructions; found inside the plasma

what is Agglutination

antibody binds multiple foreign cells and sticks them together; large clumps may result

what are Agglutinins

antibodies that bind agglutinogens

what is the ABO blood group

blood types A, B, AB and O

what are RBC antigens (agglutinogens)

• glycolipids on RBC surface

  • Antigen A

  • Antigen B

Blood type A person has which antigen?

antigen A

Blood type B person has which antigen?

antigen B

Blood type AB person has which antigen?

both A and B antigens

Blood type O person has which antigen?

neither A nor B antigen

what is the Rh blood group

includes numerous RBC antigens (C, D, and E)

what is Antigen D

the most reactive and a patient is considered Rh-positive (Rh+) if having D antigen on RBCs

Rh-negative (Rh-) means what

lacking of antigen D

Anti-D antibodies not normally present; only form in

Rh- individuals exposed to Rh+ blood

Blood type A person has which antibody?

Anti-B antibody

Blood type B person has which antibody?

Anti-A antibody

Blood type AB person has which antibody?

Neither anti-A nor anti-B antibodies

Blood type O person has which antibody?

Both anti-A and anti-B antibodies

what isCardiology

is the study of the heart and its disorders

what does the ardiovascular system consist of

the heart and blood vessels

what are Arteries

all vessels that carry blood away from the heart

what are Veins

all vessels that carry blood toward heart

what are Capillaries

microscopic vessels that connect the smallest arteries to the small veins

what does the Circulatory system refer to

heart, vessels, and blood

All arteries carry oxygenated blood except

pulmonary arteries

All veins take deoxygenated blood except

pulmonary veins

what does the pulmonary circuit do

carries blood to lungs for gas exchange and back to heart

what does the Systemic circuit do

supplies oxygenated blood to all tissues of the body and returns it to the heart

the Heart is located in the

mediastinum: space between lungs

Shape of heart:

Base

wide, superior portion of heart, large vessels attach her

Shape of heart

Apex:

tapered inferior end, tilts to the left

Size of heart in adults

weighs 10 ounces, 3.5 in. wide at base, 5 in. from base to apex

Size of heart at any age,

heart is size of fist

Heart enclosed by

the pericardium

what is the perdicardium

a double-walled sac