BI108 Test03

True-Breeding

every allele is homozygous

Coding Sequence Mutations

affects which amino acid is translated from the gene

Regulatory Mutation

genetic changes in non-coding DNA regions that control when, where, and how much of a protein is made

Genotype

the complete set of genetic material or specific allele combinations an organism inherits from its parents

Phenotype

the physical expression of an organism’s genes

Dominant Allele

hides a recessive allele and shows its trait even if you only have one copy

Recessive Allele

only shown if you get two copies of it

Wild-Type Allele

the standard, most common version of a gene found naturally in a population

Complete Dominance

the dominant allele completely covers up the recessive allele

Incomplete Dominance

the two alleles blend to make a new middle trait

Independent Assortment

random mixing of maternal and paternal chromosomes during meiosis, meaning the allele a gamete receives for one gene does not influence the allele received for another

Punnet Square

represents all the possible gametes that could unite from a cross

Unlinked Genes

genes that segregate independently during cell division (meiosis) and have an equal chance of being inherited in any combination

Linked Genes

genes located close together on the same chromosome that tend to be inherited together, exceptions being when crossing over separates them

Pulmonary Circuit

the path that moves oxygen-poor blood from the right side of the heart to the lungs, and returns oxygen-rich blood back to the left side of the heart

Systemic Circuit

the part of the cardiovascular system that carries oxygen-rich blood from the left side of the heart to the rest of the body, delivers oxygen and nutrients to tissues, and returns waste-carrying, oxygen-poor blood back to the right side of the heart

Perfusion

the delivery of oxygen-rich blood to cells and the removal of waste from cells

Bulk Flow

the movement of fluids and their dissolved substances together in one direction

Diffusion

the net movement of particles from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration

Where does the blood enter the right side of the heart from?

superior vena cava and the inferior vena cava

Where is blood going at its lowest pressure and lowest oxygen content?

Right Atrium

What prevents blood from traveling backwards?

Heart Valves

Heart Cells

very special cells that are coordinated by nerve bundles firing

Right Ventricle

pumps blood to the lungs

Pulmonary Artery

carries the blood from the right ventricle to the lungs

Capillaries

the smallest blood vessels in the body, measuring just 5 to 10 micrometers in width, and they connect small arteries to small veins to exchange oxygen, nutrients, and waste with body tissues.

Partial Pressure

the pressure it would be if we took away all the other gasses and kept the same volume

Alveoli

air sacks inside lungs

Hemoglobin

an iron-rich protein in red blood cells that transports oxygen from the lungs to the body's tissues, brings carbon dioxide back to the lungs, and gives blood its red color

Where does the most oxygen-rich blood enter?

Left Atrium

Left Ventricle

pumps blood from the heart to capillaries all over the body

Hypothalamus

responds to stimuli to keep the body in homeostasis

Homeostasis

normal levels of body systems

Neurotransmitters

the body’s chemical messengers that nerve cells use to talk to each other and to other target cells like muscles

What does CO2 do in Blood?

dissolves in blood, lowers blood pH, converted to bicarbonate

What does O2 do in Blood?

binds to hemoglobin in red blood cells

Diaphragm

increases lung capacity using negative pressure breathing

Negative Pressure Breathing

the natural process where your chest muscles and diaphragm expand your chest cavity to lower the pressure inside your lungs below the outside air pressure, which pulls air in.

Nerves

bundles of neurons

Action Potentials

electric signal sent via nerves that can be measured as voltage inside a neuron

Dendrites

Branching parts of the neuron that receive incoming signals.

Membrane Potential

charge inside the neuron

Hyperpolarization

a shift in the cell's membrane potential that makes the interior more negative, raising the threshold required to fire an action potential; driven by the closing of sodium channels and the slow, delayed closing of potassium channels

Schwann Cells

specialized glial cells in the peripheral nervous system that form myelin sheaths, speed up nerve signals, and help repair damaged nerves

Glial Cells

non-neuronal support cells in the nervous system that include astrocytes, microglia, and oligodendrocytes

Sensory Neurons

sense different inputs from the outside world; the beginning of an action potential is controlled by sensation rather than voltage

Interneurons

specialized nerve cells that connect sensory and motor neurons, process information, and coordinate body responses

Motor Neurons

specialized nerve cells that transmit electrical signals from the brain and spinal cord to muscles and glands, enabling voluntary and involuntary movements

Neurosecretory Cells

specialized neurons within the hypothalamus that translate nerve signals into hormonal messages

Synapse

occurs at the end of one neuron’s axon and allows it to communicate with another nearby neuron

Soma

cell body of a neuron that contains the nucleus

Axon

long cable-like extension that transmits the action potential

Voltage Gates

specialized proteins that open or close in response to changes in cell membrane voltage, driving electrical signals like sodium, potassium, and calcium actions

Myelin

layers of specialized cell membrane that wrap around axons

Nodes of Ranvier

the spaces between myelin sheaths

Is Na⁺ concentration inside or outside of the cell?

outside

Is K⁺ concentration inside or outside of the cell?

inside

Self

originated from the first cell of an embryo, or a single-celled organism

Non-Self

cells or viruses that did not originate from the host cells but are taking the host’s resources

Skin

wall against pathogens

Mucus

slows down bacteria and viruses

Phagocytosis

“eating” bacterial pathogens

Mast Cells

sound the alarm when pathogens enter by releasing histamine from granules to begin the immune response

Macrophages

eat bacterial pathogens and recognize them via receptors on their outer membrane that recognize many common microorganism surface proteins

Cytokines

small proteins released by macrophages and T-cells that trigger inflammation and cause fever

T-Cells

recognize antigens presented on infected cells to induce apoptosis

B-Cells

produce antibodies that bind to pathogens and alert other white blood cells

MHC Class I Complex

presents bits of antigen on the cell surface

Bone Marrow

provides an environment for self-renewal and replication of stem cells

Lymphatic System

vital network of organs, vessels, and tissues that move lymph fluid back into the bloodstream, fight infections, and balance body fluids

Where are antibodies produced?

spleen and lymph nodes

Autoimmune

immune system attacking the host