cognitive test 2

Atkinsin and Shiffrin 3 types of memory

1. the sensory memories

2. short term memory

3. long term memory

sensory memory

the initial, brief storage of sensory information from the environment. It allows us to retain impressions of sensory stimuli (like sights, sounds, and smells) for a very short period, typically lasting only a fraction of a second to a few seconds.

Iconic Memory

Brief retention of visual information, lasting about 0.5 to 1 second

Echoic Memory

Short-term storage of auditory information, lasting about 3 to 4 seconds.

Rehearsal

Subvocal reiteration of verbal material; often used in the attempt to increase the amount of information that can be remembered

memory span

the number of items(words or digits) that an indivdual can recall immediatly in the correct order. used to measure the capacity of short term memory

word length effect

fewer long words than short ones can be recalled immediatly after presentation in the correct order

chunks

stored units formed from integrating smaller pieces of info

Phenological similarity effect

The finding that immediate recall of word lists in the correct order is impaired when the words sound similar to each other

Cowens estimate of short term memory capacity

4 + or - 1 of words can be remembered. Says millers 7 + or - 1 is an overestimate

recency effect

The tendency in free recall for the last few items to be much more likely to be remebered than those from the middle of the list

age differences in memory

short term memory capacity is maximal between 18 and 30 years old

2 explanations of forgetting

Decay - forgetting over time

interference- new information overriding previouly learned informastion

ephemerality

inforation is rapidly lost if it is not refreshed

primacy effect

Not only are the last couple of words remebered but so are the first couple

short term memory duration

inforation in short term memory is generally forgotten within a few seconds. Mostly from interference rather than decay

working memory

refers to a system combining processing and short term memory funtions

Baddeley and hitch working memory model

• central executive

• phonological loop

• visuo-spatial sketch pad

• episodic buffer

All 4 componrts work fairly independly of one another

central executive

Limited capacity processing system acting as an attentional controller. It is the “boss” of working memory and controls what happens in the other componets. it can proccess information from any sensory modality but has no storage capacity

phonological loop

Component of working memory that stores a limited number of sounds for a limited period of time. it is involved in proccessing and storing speech based info

visuo-spatial sketchpad

component of working memory that is used to proccess visual and spatial information and to store this info breify

episodic buffer

storage system that can hold info from the phonological loop, the visuo-spatial sketchpad, and long term memory

corsi blocks test

a test with blocks that must be pointed to according to predifined sequences; used to measure the capacity of the visuo-spatial sketchpad

executive functions

refer to a set of cognitive skills needed to control and coordinate our cognitive abilities and behaviors

dysexecutive syndrome

a condition in which damage to the frontal lobes causes impaired functioning of the central executive involving deficits in organizing and planning behavior

unitary-store alternative

the information in working memory is the fraction of long term memory currently activated

simultaneous interpreting

makes substantial demands on working memory because it involves several different processes in rapid succession. For example: Switching from one language to another requires inhibitory control processes, and it Is more demanding to translate from the dominant language into the weaker one.

reading span

The greatest number of sentences read for comprehension for which an individual can recall all final words more than 50% of the time

operation span

the maximum number of items (both math problems and words) that a person can successfully process and recall. In an Operation Span task, participants solve a series of simple math problems while also trying to remember a sequence of unrelated words or letters.

Here’s how it works:

Math Problems: The participant is given a series of simple arithmetic tasks to solve, like "2 + 3 = ?". This requires cognitive effort and attention.

Words to Remember: After each math problem, a word is presented that the participant must remember.

Recall Task: At the end of the sequence, the participant is asked to recall all the words in the order they were presented.

correlation coefficient

A statistical measure that quantifies the degree to which two variables are related. It ranges from -1 to +1:

+1 indicates a perfect positive correlation (both variables increase together).

-1 indicates a perfect negative correlation (one variable increases while the other decreases).

0 indicates no correlation (no predictable relationship).

fluid intellegence vs crystallized intelligence

Fluid intellegence invloves a rapid understanding and manipulation of info and is used in tasks such as reasoning and math solving

Crystallized intellegence: depends on knowledge and expertise stored in long term memory and is typically associated with vocab test or general knowledge tests

Explain how to measure a person’s short-term memory capacity.

Memory span test which is the number of items ( words or digits) that an indivdual can recall immediatly in the correct order. used to measure the capacity of short term memory

How do the “working memory” and “short-term memory” concepts differ?

Temporary storage of information for a brief period (seconds to minutes) without manipulation.

Working Memory: A system that stores and actively manipulates information, used for tasks like reasoning and problem-solving.

How is working memory capacity measured?

Measures of this requires processing and breif storage of info. 2 tests typically used are reading span and operation span tests

What are some of the main cognitive differences between people who have high and low working memory capacity?

There is a typical correlation between working memory capacity and general intellegence

intentional learning

learning that is goal directed and motivated by the intention to retain the info learned

incidental learning

learning that takes place without intent to learn

implicit learning

a form of learning producing long term memory in which there is no conscious awareness of what has been learned

explicit learning

a form of learning producing long term memory which involves concious awareness of what has been learned

serial reaction time task

one of the main tasks to study implicit learning. Participants respond to a series of visual stimuli appearing in specific locations by pressing corresponding keys. The sequence may start random but often includes a repeating pattern, allowing researchers to track learning through recorded reaction times. This task helps study how people learn patterns without awareness and develop automatic responses.

striatum

subcortical structure situated between the cerebral hemispheres and the brainstem that plays a big role in implicit learning

levels of processing theory

this is the assumption that learning and long term memory will be better the more deeply the meaning of the stimulus materials is processed

self reference effect

enhanced long-term memory for info if it is related to the self at the time of learning

word-fragment task

A cognitive test that assesses implicit memory and word recognition. Participants complete incomplete words (fragments), which may be influenced by prior exposure to related words. The task measures the priming effect, revealing how previous experiences enhance word recognition and cognitive processing.

transfer-appropriate processing

this is the notion that long term memory will be greatest when the proccessing at the time of retrieval is very similar to the proccessing at the time of learning

distinctiveness

this characterizes memory traces that are distinct or different from other memory traces stored in long term memory; leads to enhanced memory

testing effect

the finding that long term memory is enhanced when some of the learning period is devoted to retrieving the to be remebered info

declarative memory

also known as explcit memory. this is memory that involves concious recollection of info

nondeclarative memory

also known as implicit memory; memory that doesnt involve concious recollection

autobiographical memory

remebering personal experiences in our lives

procedural memory

form of nondeclarative memory; involving learned skills and concerned with “Knowing how”

episodic memory

a form of declarative memory concerned with personal expericnes or episodes occuring in a certian place

semantic memory

a form of declarative memory; consiting of general knowledge of the world, concepts, language and so on

Amnesia

a condition caused by brain damage in which there are serious impairments of long term memory (especially eposodic)

retrograde amnesia

Impaired ability of amnesic patients to remeber info and events from the time period prior to the onset of amnesia

anterograde amnesia

impaired ability of amnesic patients to learn and remember info after the onset of amnesia

encoding specificity principle

the notion that retrevial depends on the overlap between info avaliable at retreival and the info within the memory trace; memory is best when overlap is high

proactive interference

disruption of memory by previous learning

retroactive interference

disruption of memory for what was learned originally by other learning or processing during the retention interval

condolidation

a physiological process involved in establishing long term memories; this process lasts several hours or more, and newly formed memories that are still being consolidated are fragile

reconsolidation

This is a new consolidation process that occurs when a previously formed memory trace is reactivated; it allows that memory trace to be updates

the forgetting curve

The rate of forgetting is generally fastest shortly after learning and then decreases progressivly

recall vs recognition

Recall and recognition are 2 of the most used measures of explicit memory.

Recall: Retrieving information without cues (e.g., listing all U.S. presidents).

Recognition: Identifying information with cues (e.g., picking out presidents from a list).

concept

a mental representation of a category of objects; stored in long term memory

category

a set or class of objects that belong together

semantic dementia

a condition caused by brain damage in which there is initially mainly extensive loss of knowledge about the meanings of words and concepts

fuzzy boundries

zone of gradual transition that exists between many categories, meaning that for most concepts its is impossible to define them by means of a list of essential features

prototype

a central descrption or conceptual core incorporating the major features of a category, with some features generally weighted more than others

typicality effect

the finding that the time to decide that a category member belongs to a category is less for more typical than less typical members

embodied cognition

the hypothosis that the meaning of concepts depends on the physical interactions of our body with the surrounding world

hub and spoke model

model that provides an idea of how abstract concepts can be based on different types of info and on how they can be stable and context-dependent at the same time

exemplar approach

people categorize new objects based on specific examples they've encountered rather than an average or prototype. It allows for nuanced classification and relies on memory of past instances. For example, identifying a "bird" by recalling specific ones like robins or sparrows.

knowledge based approach

involves using existing knowledge and understanding to classify new items. It relies on conceptual frameworks and context, allowing for flexible and dynamic categorization based on prior experiences. For instance, categorizing an animal by considering its behavior and habitat, not just its appearance

ciation task

examines memory retrieval by asking participants to recall or recognize information and provide references for it. This helps researchers understand how memory works and the cognitive processes involved in retrieving knowledge.

spreading of activation

the notion that activation of a node(corresponding to a concept) in a semantic network causes activation to spread to related nodes, so that the meaning of a concpet becomes richer

proposition

a configuration of concepts based on a limited number of combination rules and resulting in a true-false statment, assumed to be the unit of storage in semantic memory

schema

a set of related propositions , which forms a packet of typical knowledge about the world, events, or people

rationalization

the tendency in story recall to produce errors conforming to the cultural expectations of the rememberer, it is attributed to the influence of schemas

stereotypes

schemas incorportating oversimplified generalizations about certian groups

executive functions

set of cognitive skills used to control and coordinate cognitive abilities and behaviors

saying is believing effect

tailoring a message about an event to suit a given audicence causes subsequent inaccuracies in memory for that event

flashbulb memories

vivid and detailed memories of dramatic and significant events

repression

motivated forgetting of tramatic or other very threatening events

recovered memories

childhoof traumatic or threatening memories that are remembered many years after the relevent events or experinces

false memories

apparent recovered memories that refer to imagined rather than genuine events or experinces

childhood amnesia

the inability of adults to recall autobiograohical memories from early childhood

reminiscence bump

the tendency of older people to recall a disproportionate number of autobiographical memories from the years of adolencence and early adulthood

life script

the typical major life events for indivuduals living within a given society; sample life events are getting married and having children

post event misinformation effect

the distorting effects on eyewitnesses memory of misleading informtion provided after the crime or other event

source misattribution

errors in long term memory that occur whn the rememberer is mistaken about the source of origin of a retrieved memory

unconscious transference

the tendency of eyewitnesses to misidentify a faniliar(but innocent) face as belonging to the person responsible to the crime

cross race effect

the finding that recogntion memory for same-race faces is more accurate than other race faces

confirmation bias

distortions of memory caused by the influence of expectations concerning what is likely to happen

weapon focus

the finding that eyewitnesses pay so much attention to some crucial aspect of the situation that they ignore other details

own age bias

the tendency for eyewitnesses to identify the culprit more often when she/he is a similar age to the eyewitneess

cognitive interview

based on the finding that recall depends on the overlap between recall context and that during an incidenf. in general is more effective than a normal interview

retrospective memory

memory for events, words, people, and so on encountered or experienced in the past

prospective memory

remembering to carry out some intended action in the absence of any explicit reminder to do so

time based prosepctive memory

remember to carry out an intended action at a particular time

meta memory

beliefs and knowledge about ones own memory including strategies for learning in memory