GEO exam 2

What are the permanent gases in the atmosphere and their relative abundances?

Nitrogen (78%), Oxygen (21%), Argon (0.93%), and trace gases like Neon, Helium, and Hydrogen. They stay constant over time.

What are the variable gases in the atmosphere and their relative abundances?

Water vapor (0–4%), Carbon dioxide (~0.04%), Methane (~0.00018%), Nitrous oxide (~0.00003%), and Ozone (~0.000001–0.00001%). These vary with location and time

How does temperature vary with altitude in the atmosphere?

• Troposphere: Temperature ↓ with height.

• Stratosphere: Temperature ↑ with height (ozone absorbs UV).

• Mesosphere: Temperature ↓ with height (thin air).

• Thermosphere: Temperature ↑ with height (absorbs solar radiation).

What are the major functions of Earth’s atmosphere?

• Provides oxygen and carbon dioxide for life.

• Protects from UV radiation and meteors.

• Regulates temperature via greenhouse effect.

• Distributes heat and moisture (weather and climate).

• Enables water cycle and energy balance.

What is electromagnetic radiation (EMR)?

Energy that travels as waves (radio → gamma rays), defined by wavelength and frequency.

What’s the difference between EMR from the Sun and the Earth?

• Sun: Shortwave radiation (visible and UV).

• Earth: Longwave infrared radiation (heat energy emitted back).

What is the solar constant, and where is it obtained?

1361 W/m² — the average solar energy received per square meter at the top of the atmosphere.

What is insolation and how does it vary?

Incoming solar radiation received at Earth’s surface; varies with latitude, season, time of day, and cloud cover

What are the interactions of radiation in the atmosphere?

What are atmospheric windows and why are they important?

Wavelength ranges where EMR passes freely through the atmosphere (especially in infrared); help Earth release heat into space.

What are the interactions of energy at Earth’s surface?

Reflection, Absorption, and Emission

What is albedo?

: Percentage of sunlight reflected by a surface.

• High albedo: Snow, ice (reflect more).

• Low albedo: Forests, oceans (absorb more).

What are the means of heat transfer?

Radiation, Conduction, Convection

What’s the difference between sensible heat and latent heat?

• Sensible heat: Can be felt/measured (temperature change).

• Latent heat: Stored or released during phase changes (like evaporation or condensation).

What is sensible heat?

Can be felt/measured (temperature change).

What is Latent heat?

Stored or released during phase changes (like evaporation or condensation).

What is the global energy budget?

Balance between incoming solar radiation and outgoing Earth radiation — keeps Earth’s temperature stable.

What is the Greenhouse effect?

Natural process trapping heat for a livable climate

What is global warming?

Human-enhanced increase in greenhouse gases raising global temperatures.

What is temperature?

Measure of the average kinetic energy (motion) of air molecules.

What are the temperature scales?

Celsius, Fahrenheit, kelvin

How is air temperature measured?

Using a thermometer placed in the shade, in a ventilated instrument shelter above the ground.

What are apparent or felt temperatures?

How temperature feels due to wind and humidity

What makes the heat index?

Combines temperature & humidity

What makes wind chill?

Combines temperature and wind speed

How does air temperature change annually?

Warmest after the summer solstice, coolest after the winter solstice

How does air temperature change daily?

Warmest mid-afternoon, coolest before sunrise

What is temperature lag and why does it happen?

Delay between maximum solar input and maximum temperature; caused by time needed for surface to absorb and re-emit energy.

Why does temperature lag behind diurnal radiation?

Ground keeps absorbing sunlight even after solar noon until outgoing heat matches incoming radiation.

How does temperature vary over space?

Depends on latitude, elevation, ocean proximity, surface type, and air circulation patterns.

What is maritime?

Near water, mild climate, smaller temperature range.

What is continental effects?

Inland, larger daily and seasonal temperature changes

What causes the urban heat island effect?

• Buildings, pavement, and pollution trap heat.

• Less vegetation → less cooling evaporation.

• Results in higher temperatures in cities compared to rural areas.