Week 2 - Sociological Perspectives and Theories of Aging

Gerontology

The scientific study of old age, which emerged as an interdisciplinary field in the 20th century. The term was first coined by Russian microbiologist Elie Metchnikoff in 1903, whose work linked longevity to immune and intestinal health. Although initially dismissed, gerontology began to develop in the 1920s and became a recognized discipline in the 1940s and 1950s.

Social Gerontology

The study of social, physiological, cultural, and economic studies of aging

Age Effects

Physiological and social changes that are occurring as people age

Period Effects

Changes experienced by all age groups due to major social, environmental, or economic events

Cohort Effects

Changes that affect groups of people born at the same time

Generations

Groups of people who live during the same historical time

“Why” Theory

Theories help us answer “how” and “why” questions by providing explanations. For example, many older adults experience health problems but still report being in very good health. This could be due to denial of their declining health, their personal perception of what it means to be healthy, or other factors.

Macro-level Analysis

Focuses on society as a whole via social structures

Micro-level Analysis

Focuses on individual social interactions and experiences via agency

Social Structures

Social conditions that shape our abilities and create the world around us

Agency

Our ability to act on our beliefs and how much freedom we have

Social Paradigms

Create a set of beliefs about the world around us which we hold

Social Paradigms and Aging Theory

This theory explains how different social paradigms shape our beliefs about aging and society.

• Structural Functionalist Paradigm: Focuses on social structures, norms, and roles that maintain stability in society.

• Interpretivist/Interactionist Paradigm: Emphasizes individual meaning-making, personal experiences, and agency in shaping aging experiences.

• Conflict/Critical Paradigm: Highlights power dynamics, inequality, conflict, and social change in the aging process.

Paradigms

How things are organized in the world

Theories

Built upon overarching paradigms they are 

more specific. 

Structural-Functionalist Theory

A deterministic macro-level theory that views society as a harmonious system where social institutions work together to maintain order and consensus. It relies on an interconnected system where like a body, if one part (e.g., education, economy) fails, it creates a domino effect on other systems. This theory creates a set of:

• Social Norms: Expectations that guide behavior (e.g., students are expected to be interested in learning).

• Social Status: Positions people hold in society (e.g., teacher, parent).

• Societal Roles: Responsibilities tied to a status (e.g., a professor must teach effectively, a mother must care for her children).

• Socialization: The process of learning how to fulfill these roles.

Conflict or Critical Paradigm

A macro-level theory that emphasizes power, inequality, and social change within capitalist societies.

• Bourgeoisie: The wealthy class that owns the means of production, such as factories, tools, and machinery. They maximize profits by hiring fewer workers and controlling economic resources.

• Proletariat: The working class that does not own the means of production and must sell their labor to survive.

• Means of Production: The resources and tools used to produce goods and services. Those who own them (bourgeoisie) hold power over those who do not (proletariat), reinforcing economic inequality.

This perspective argues that society is not naturally harmonious but instead shaped by ongoing struggles for power and resources.

Symbolic Interactionist/Interpretivist Paradigm

A micro-level theory that explores how individuals create meaning through social interactions and how these meanings shape their experiences.

• Social Agents & Meaning: People actively interpret their experiences, assigning personal significance to concepts like aging.

• Socially Constructed Knowledge: Ideas and beliefs are shaped by cultural and historical contexts rather than being fixed truths.

• The Meaning of Aging: Aging is understood differently across cultures and historical periods. What it means to be "old" in one society may not be the same in another.

First-Generation Theories

Focus on how older adults adjust to aging and adapt to societal roles and expectations. Includes Activity Theory and Disengagement Theory.

Second-Generation Theories

Expand on the first generation by incorporating social structures and conditions, examining how external factors influence the aging process beyond just individual adaptation. Includes Continuity, Social Exchange, Age Stratification and Political Economy Theories.

Third-Generation Theories

Further elaborate on the relationship between older adults and society, emphasizing the dynamic interactions between individuals and their social environments. Includes Life Course Perspective, Critical Gerontology, and Feminist Theories and Perspectives.

Activity Theory

Developed by Havinghurst (1961) and influenced by the interpretivist paradigm, this theory suggests that staying socially and physically active is essential for maintaining a sense of self-worth in old age.

• Key Assumption: Older adults need to remain active to preserve happiness and well-being.

• Challenges with Aging: As people age, they may face fewer opportunities for social engagement, making it harder to fulfill traditional societal roles.

• Criticism: Modern critiques highlight that society does not provide enough meaningful roles for older adults, making it difficult for them to stay engaged as they age.

This theory emphasizes the importance of social interaction but is debated for its assumption that all older adults must remain active to maintain well-being.

Disengagement Theory

Developed by Henry & Cumming (1961), this theory was the first formal theory in social gerontology and suggests that as individuals age, they gradually withdraw from social roles.

• Natural Process: Aging leads to a progressive disengagement from social institutions and responsibilities.

• Benefit to Society & Individuals: While this withdrawal may initially lower morale, it ultimately allows for a smooth transition where younger generations take on societal roles.

• Challenges: Measuring and defining disengagement is complex, as the process varies across individuals and contexts.

This theory frames aging as a systematic and necessary withdrawal that maintains social stability.

Continuity Theory

Developed by Atchley in the 1970s, this theory suggests that successful aging involves maintaining identity while adapting to age-related changes.

• Internal Continuity: Stability in personality, emotions, beliefs, and values over time.

• External Continuity: Stability in social roles, relationships, and physical environment to support well-being.

• Aging Well: Individuals need to preserve their core identity and maintain familiar roles to achieve balance and fulfillment.

As a second-generation theory, it builds on earlier models by emphasizing identity maintenance as key to aging successfully.

Social Exchange Theory

Developed by Homans (1961) and Blau (1964), this theory applies economic principles to social relationships, emphasizing cost-benefit analysis, reciprocity, and rational choice in interactions.

• Core Idea: People engage in relationships based on perceived rewards and costs. If a relationship is not mutually beneficial, it may become strained.

• Application to Aging: As individuals age, their access to valued resources (e.g., employment, social influence) may decline, increasing dependency on others.

• Power Dynamics: Aging can alter relationship balances, such as older adults relying more on family for support, which may create tensions or role shifts.

Although originally unrelated to aging, this micro-level theory helps explain how aging affects social exchanges and relationships over time.

Age Stratification Theory

Developed by Riley et al. in the 1970s, this theory explains how society categorizes individuals based on age, shaping their roles, experiences, and access to resources throughout life.

• Life Course: The process of individual aging, including personal transitions and societal expectations at different life stages.

• Age Strata: Groupings of individuals based on age (e.g., students, working adults, retirees).

• Cohort Flow: The idea that historical and societal changes impact different generations differently, influencing their roles and experiences.

• Socialization & Role Allocation: People learn societal expectations through age-based roles, which shift as they age.

A key concept is structural lag, which occurs when societal institutions fail to adapt to the changing needs of an aging population. For example, policies for subsidized daycare or long-term care facilities may take years to be implemented, creating a gap where people do not receive the support they need.

This theory, rooted in social gerontology, highlights the impact of age cohorts and societal structures on the aging process.

Political Economy Approach

Takes a macro-level approach to understanding aging by examining how economic, political, and social structures shape individuals’ lives. It is derived from stratification theory, which explains how social hierarchies influence opportunities and resources across different groups.

• This theory explores how political movements and ideologies influence social policies and perceptions.

• It highlights the role of power and economic systems in shaping aging experiences.

• For example, the way people view international students varies—some see them as contributors to society, while others view their presence as a challenge to local resources.

This approach emphasizes the broader structural forces that impact aging and social life, rather than focusing solely on individual experiences.

Life Course Perspective

Developed by Elder (1960–1970s), it examines how structural, social, and cultural contexts shape an individual's aging experience. It bridges macro- and micro-level frameworks by emphasizing how life unfolds over time.

This perspective is built on five key principles:

1. Time and Place – Aging experiences are shaped by historical and geographical contexts.

2. Life Span Development – Aging involves physiological, psychological, and social processes that occur throughout life.

3. Timing – The timing of life events (e.g., marriage, retirement) affects how they are perceived and experienced.

4. Agency – Individuals make choices that influence their own aging process within the constraints of their environment.

5. Linked Lives – People do not age in isolation; their experiences are interconnected with the lives of family, friends, and significant others.

This perspective highlights how aging is a dynamic process, influenced by both personal decisions and broader societal forces.

Critical Gerontology

An approach that examines power and structural inequalities in aging, challenging dominant societal norms and discourses. It critiques the status quo by questioning assumptions about aging and advocating for more inclusive perspectives.

A key focus of this approach is praxis, meaning the integration of theory and action to drive social change. It calls for the active inclusion of older adults in research, ensuring that their voices and experiences shape policies and knowledge production.

Feminist Theories and Perspectives

Examine aging through both macro- and micro-level lenses, emphasizing the role of gender as a fundamental organizing principle of social life. These perspectives critique the historical absence of women in social theories and highlight how gender shapes experiences of aging.

Key areas of focus include gender stratification, power structures, and the unequal distribution of responsibilities such as caregiving and family work. This perspective reveals how societal expectations and inequalities impact the aging process differently for men and women.