LANG FINAL REVIEW

★SIMPLE SENTENCE 

A single independent clause 

• Music from the 80s rocks.

• The silly squirrel ran through the yard with an apple in his mouth.

★ADVERB CLAUSE 

★ADVERB CLAUSE 

An adverbial clause is a dependent clause that functions as an adverb

begins with subordinating conjunction (AAAWWUUBBIS)

the “normal” type of DC

Ex:If it rains tomorrow, we will stay inside.

★ANTITHESIS

Juxtaposition (contrasting ideas) in parallel structure

a literary device that places opposite words, ideas, or qualities parallel to each other

“Give every man thy ear, but few thy voice.”

“the hare was fast, and the tortoise was slow"

★RHETORICAL QUESTION

Posing a question that is expected to be considered but not answered literally.

Ex: “How will you keep surviving?”

★COMPOUND SENTENCE

a sentence that has at least two independent clauses joined by a semicolon or conjunction

Ex: I am counting my calories, yet I really want dessert.

★NOUN CLAUSE

A type of subordinate clause that acts as a noun in a sentence 

can be: subject, DO, IO, obj. of prepo., etc

Ex: what you said really surprised me 

 what he had was extremely strong determination

She doesn't understand why they left so early 

★ALLUSION

an expression designed to call something to mind without mentioning it explicitly; an indirect or passing reference.

Ex: “To my dog, our neighborhood park is the Garden of Eden”

“McDonalds is Fat Albert’s kryptonite.”

★INFINITIVE

A verb form typically preceded by “to”.

Can act as a noun, adjective, or adverb.

“I love to sleep.”

“This is the coat to buy.”

“To write has always been my passion.”

★DEPENDANT CLAUSE

a group of words that contains a subject and verb but does not express a complete thought

I went out on the bike that Mary gave me for my birthday, “that mary gave me for my birthday” is the dependant clause

★COMPLEX SENTENCE

One independent clause and at least one dependent clause 

Ex. When she came home, her dog greeted her.

Ex. I love winter because of the cool weather. 

★Participial Phrase

A verb phrase that acts as an adjective and begins with a participial

Ex. It was certainly an embarrassing moment.

EX.The injured worker hit his thumb w/ the hammer. 

★Compound-Complex Sentence

A sentence that has at least two independent clauses joined by a semicolon, or conjunction, AND at least one dependent clause

Ex. “Harry jumped with joy and Carl moped because of the sudden downpour.”

★Adjective clause          

A dependent clause which begins with a relative pronoun.

The adjective clause combines a noun/pronoun in the main clause.

tells: which, what kind, how many

IS THE SAME THING AS A RELATIVE CLAUSE

Ex: The book, which was ordered yesterday, was expensive.

★Independent clause 

is a group of words that contains a subject and a predicate (verb) and expresses a complete thought. It can stand alone as a sentence because it does not depend on anything else to convey its meaning.

Ex: "I wanted to go for a walk, but it started raining.

★Gerund

A verb form that acts as a noun. Gerunds can do anything that a noun can do.

Ex. “I love jogging.” (Direct object)

“Swimming is fun.” (Subject)

★Appositive Phrases

Noun phrases that identify adjacent nouns or pronouns

• They are useful but not essential to the sentence

• Further clarify something about the noun

Ex: Harry, one of my three siblings, always finds a way to get into trouble with our parents.

★Prepositional phrase

A group of words that begins with a preposition and ends with a noun, pronoun, or noun phrase

“During intermission is the best time to get a drink.”, during is the preposition, while intermission is the object of the preposition

can be both adjective or adverb clauses (those fall under prepo.)

★Hyperbole

An exaggerated statement or claim not meant to be taken literally. 

"I'm so hungry I could eat a horse.”

★Gerund phrases

a group of words that begins with a gerund (the “-ing” form of a verb that acts as a noun) and includes any of its objects and modifiers

(Subject)       Swimming in the ocean is risky.

(Direct object)  I love making new friends.

(Indirect object) Ewan gave running barefoot a try for three weeks.

(Object of a preposition) She is so tired of  waiting for someone to call back.

★TONE

the author’s attitude towards the subject

tone words:

• aghast

• condescending

• sarcastic

• displeased

• annoyed

• snarky

• defiant

• proud

• pleased

• passionate

★Context in Rhetorical situations

The circumstances, background, or environment in which the text is created or presented. 

Think of these when writing or thinking about context:

    Cultural or historical context

    Medium and platform used

    Creator background

★Adjective clause 

A group of words with a noun and or verb that modifies a subject or object. 

“Students who work hard get good grades” 

★REPETITION

Repetition is when the same word, phrase, action, or event is repeated multiple times, often used to emphasize something or create a pattern.

Words: “I can’t wait to go to the park, I can’t wait to see my friends!”

Actions: “She ran around the track, then ran around again”

★IMAGERY

Using descriptive or figurative language to paint a picture

Ex: The air smelled salty as she stood in the sand, watching the bright blue ocean crash onto the beach.

★METAPHOR

Comparison of two unlike things WITHOUT using “like” or “as”

Ex: “Her smile was the sun, lighting up the whole room.”

★RELATIVE CLAUSES

A relative clause is a dependent clause with a subject in a verb that always begins with a relative pronoun.

SAME AS ADJ CLAUSE

I am moving to Loveland, Colorado, which is the hometown of Aiden Scholl.

★Simile

A comparison of two unlike things using “like” or “as” 

Ex: Aidens hair is like fire.

★Relative Pronouns

Who, whom, whose, which, that, were

★Parallelism

Repetition or similarity of structure in a pair or series of related words, phrases of clauses.

Ex: Fool me once, shame on you; fool me twice, shame on me

★Exigence

A movement or event that motivates a writer to write about something. 

Racial prejudice and Martin Luther king.

★Anaphora

A rhetorical device in which a word is repeated at the beginning of a number of sentences, clauses, or phrases. 

Ex: Aiden is ginger, Aiden is goofy, Aiden is freaky

★Fanboys

Coordinating conjunctions

For, and, nor, but, or, yet, so

★DICTION

Diction is the choice of words and style of speaking or writing. It helps set the tone, mood, and meaning of a message.

Formal: serious, regular conventions of English, longer sentences, careful word choice

Informal: personal tone, expressions, contractions (can’t), basic conventions

Colloquial: very casual
Denotation: EXACT dictionary meaning

Connotation: ideas/associations implied with the word

general: group/class

specific: members of that class

Slang: colloquial, coined or changed meanings, quickly passed through

Jargon: VERY specialized to a particular group

Regional Lang: specific to geographic area

Abstract: qualities, concepts, overall ideas

Concrete: perceived by senses, specific images and details

★Subordinate conjunction 

After, although, as, as if, as long as, as soon as, because, before, if, in order that, since, so that, than, though, unless, until, when, whenever, where, wherever, while

(remember: after, before, since, until, and as may also be used as prepositions) 

Ex. When our school has a fire drill, everyone must go outside. 

★Rhetoric

-the use of language that persuades or has an effect on the writer’s/speaker’s audience

-uses a figure of speech and other compositional techniques

★AAAWWUUBBIS

Subordinate conjunctions:

After
Although

As
When/whenever
While
Unless
Until
Before
Because
If
Since

★ANECDOTE

An anecdote is a short, personal story or tale that is often used to illustrate a point or entertain. 

“When I was younger, I was terrified of speaking in front of people. But one day, I decided to face my fear and give a speech at school. That moment changed my life”

★SOAPSTEM

A way to organize one's thinking when writing about a text.

Subject, Occassion, Audience, Purpose, Speaker, Tone, Exigence, and Message. 

★Coordinating Conjunction

Used to conjunct or join together two clauses (usually two independent clauses) to form a compound sentence.

FANBOYS

Ex: My little brother likes to play baseball and he likes to go to the park.

★APPEAL TO CREDIBILITY (ETHOS)

Rhetorical appeal focuses on the credibility, authority, or character of the speakers/writer to persuade an audience. 

Ethos answers the question- Why should we trust you? 

“You can trust me to fix your car because I’ve been a mechanic for 10 years.”

★APPEAL TO EMOTION (PATHOS)

Appealing to emotion is a rhetorical technique that appeals to the emotions of the audience, aiming to persuade or connect with them on an emotional level.

“Starving kittens continue to freeze on the dangerous and lonely streets of cities in the U.S.”

★Syntax

The arranging of words, phrases, or clauses to create a sentence.

Ex: The boy kicked the ball

• The boy kicked the ball, causing it to hit the vase sitting on the counter.

★Appeal To Logic or Reason (Logos)

When using logos, the author is trying to make a logical connection between ideas or different reasonings, often using facts or statistics.

Ex: Schools should have a later start time because according to expert opinion, students perform better on a good night’s rest.

★Purpose 

The reason in which something is done or created.

The author's reason for writing it.

Ex: The purpose of Martin Luther King Jr’s. speech was to oppose racism and encourage unity. 

★MESSAGE

Idea or thought that the author is trying to show/tell the reader.

Ex: Martin Luther King's message was to stop racism and spread peace.

★Linking Verbs

Am, Are, Is, Was, Were, Be, Being, Been

Linking verbs link something in the predicate back to the subject.

They can also be used as helping verbs.

★Adverb

An adverb modifies verbs or adjectives or other adverbs.

How 

When 

Where 

To what extent?

Often, I eat breakfast. 

★Helping Verbs

Do, Does, Did

Have, Has, Had

May, Might, Must

Can, Could

Shall, Should

Will, Would

Help the verb and make the sentence make more sense.

★Discourse

Written or spoken communication or debate

An extensive exploration of a subject

4 Types of Discourse: Expository, descriptive, narrative, and argumentative.

★LITOTES

An ironic understatement where an affirmative is expressed by the negative of its contrary. 

Ex: Saying the weather isn’t so bad when it is pouring rain.

★PERIPHRASIS

A descriptive word or phrase used to refer to a proper name

Ex: “The Big Apple” referring to New York City

Ex: “The Golden Arches” referring to McDonalds

★Metonymy

figure of speech in which a word is substituted for another word that it is closely associated with.

For example, “the White House” is often used as a metonymy for the presidential administration

★Cumulative/Loose Sentence

“Details are listed after the basic sentence components (independent clause)”

Ex: Bells rang, filling the air with their clangar, startling pigeons into flight, bringing people into the street to hear the news.

She walked into the room with a confident smile, greeted everyone she knew from work, who had gathered for the celebration.

★Anthimeria

One part of speech, usually a verb, substitutes for another word, usually a noun

Ex. “Let's Google that.”

“I could use a good sleep” 

★Periodic Sentence

Details are listed before or in the middle of the basic sentence components (the trunk).  

“Despite the pouring rain, strong winds,and rocky terrain, the hikers reached the top of the mountain. 

“Positive thinking, by helping us stay focused and maintaining a good attitude, is important for a happy life”.

★Juxtaposition

-Two similar things are placed close together but have contrasting meanings in the text.

Ex: All’s fair in love and war.

★Canons

1. Invention (Discovery)

2. Arrangement (Disposition) 

3. Style 

4. Delivery

5. Memory

★Synecdoche

A part of something that is used to refer to the whole

Ex: 7“Everyone needs to lend a hand”

★PARADOX

A self-contradictory statement but it can be true.

Ex: Less is more

★EPISTROPHE

A repetition of a word/words at the end of successive sentences, phrases, or clauses

Ex: When I was a child, I talked like a child, I thought like a child, I reasoned like a child.

★Rogerian Argument

Assumes that a willing writer can find a middle or common ground with a willing reader

Does not focus on winning or controversy 

EX: While civilian gun ownership is acceptable for personal protection, the idea to eliminate gun control laws is not the best solution.

★Invention

The art of ordering the material in a text, so that it is most appropriate for the audience and purpose

Who

What

When

Where

Why/How

Ex: We go to a weeklong annual teachers convention every summer.

★AUDIENCE

Author’s intended group of readers/group of people whom the author is addressing

★ELLIPSIS

the omission from speech or writing of a word or words that are superfluous or able to be understood from contextual clues.

EX: I knew [that] something terrible had happened.

★POLYSYNDETON

the use of repeated conjunctions between words or clauses in a sentence to emphasize what’s being said.

EX: “Neither snow nor rain nor heat nor gloom of night stays these couriers from the swift completion of their appointed rounds.”

ASYNDETON

The omission or absence of a conjunction between parts of a sentence.

Ex: Reduce, reuse, and recycle

★ASSONANCE

In poetry, the repetition of the sound of a vowel or diphthong in non rhyming stressed syllables near enough to each other for the echo to be discernible

Ex: “great flakes”

“between trees”

“kind knight rides by”

ANAPHORA

the repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive clauses.

Ex:

 “Get busy living or get busy dying.”

“I wish I may; I wish I might”

ANADIPLOSIS

The repetition of the last word of a preceding clause. The word is used at the end of a sentence and then used again at the beginning of the next sentence.

“When I give, I give myself”

"She opened a café, a café that ruined her financially."

"While driving, whenever you see a big red hexagon, the big red hexagon means you should stop the car."

CHIASMUS

When the same words are used twice in succession, but the second time, the order of the words is reversed.

“Fair is foul and foul is fair.”

“When the going gets tough, the tough get going.”

ISOCOLON

Parallel elements that mimic each other in exact structure and length.

“Buy one, get one free.”

ZEUGMA

A rhetorical device that uses a single word to modify two or more words in different ways.  

When a word applies to different other words in different ways

John and his license expired (rip)

“The storm sank my boat and my dreams.”

ANASTROPHE

The inversion of natural or usual word order (like Yoda-speak)

“The greatest teacher, failure is.”

ALLITERATION

the occurrence of the same letter or sound at the beginning of adjacent or closely connected words.

Ex: Sweet Birds Sang

Ex: Peter Picked a Peck of Peppers

PARENTHESES

Adding additional information to a sentence that is usually an explanation for not essential. 

how do you punctuate a compound sentence?

IC, fanboy IC. or

IC ; IC. or

IC; conjunctive adverb IC.

How do you punctuate a complex sentence?

IC DC. or DC, IC.

ADjectives

modify nouns or pronous

answers: which, what kind, how many, how much

preposition

show the relation of a noun/pronoun to another word

IN the rain

BEHIND the barn

ON the roof

adjective phrases

prepositional phrase that acts as an adjective

modifies a noun or pronoun

answers which one, how many, what kind

adverb phrases

prepositional phrases that acts as an adverb

modifies a verb, adj, or adv

answers: how, when, why, where, to what extent

Verbals

verbs that do something different than a verb

3 kinds: participles (act as adj), gerunds (act as nouns), and infinitives (adj, noun, adv, to “verb”)

participle (not necessarily a phrase just a participle)

verb forms acting as adjectives (answers which on, what kind, how many)

present participles (-ing)

past participles (-d, -ed, -t)

describe nouns/pronouns

start off participial phrases

absolute phrase

consists of a participle/part. phrase and the nouns/prn. it modifies

the entire word group is an adverb that modifies the IC

sentence parts that describe the rest of their sentence

ALMOST complete thoughts

can become complete by adding was/were

is a clause with no verb, so it becomes a phrase

EX: her face showing unhappiness (her face WAS showing unhappiness)

mood

similar to tone, but is the feeling the audience gets from the text

developed through setting/atmosphere

Periodic Sentence

Complex sentence where the main clause or point occurs at the end of the sentence instead of the beginning.

Creates suspense by building to a climax at the end

opposite of cumulative sentence

Cumulative Sentence

Independent clause followed by a series of subordinating constructions (phrases or clauses) Gathers details about the idea. natural type of writing (imitates speaking). Places emphasis on the details in the sentence

opposite of periodic sentence

Isocolon

Perfect exact parallel structure of approximately equal length, generally just two things

Tricolon

series of THREE parallel elements such as words, phrases, or clauses. that are all the same length, also perfect structure. Basically isocolon x3