PSYC 255: CH. 1 - INTRODUCTION

What is development?

The pattern of movement or change that begins at conception and continues through the human life span.

• Each of us develops partly like all other individuals.

• Partly like some other individual.

• And partly like no other individual.

• We recognize others for what makes them unique, but we have all traveled some common paths.

There has been increase in what?

Life expectancy.

What is life expectancy?

The average number of years that a person born in a particular year can expect to live.

According to Paul Baltes, the life-span perspective views development as?

• Lifelong.

• Multidimensional.

• Multidirectional.

• Plastic.

• Multidisciplinary.

• Contextual.

• A process that involves growth, maintenance, and regulation of loss.

• A co-construction of biological, sociocultural, and individual factors (factors beyond the environment and genetics) working together.

What does Paul Baltes mean when saying the life-span perspective view development as lifelong?

He means that early adulthood is not the endpoint of development, and no age period dominates development.

What does Paul Baltes mean when saying the life-span perspective view development as multidimensional?

He means that it consists of biological, cognitive, and socioemotional dimensions.

What does Paul Baltes mean when saying the life-span perspective view development as multidirectional?

He means that throughout life, some dimensions or components of a dimension expand and others shrink.

What does Paul Baltes mean when saying the life-span perspective view development as plastic?

He means that the plasticity of development refers to its capacity for change.

What does Paul Baltes mean when saying the life-span perspective view development as multidisciplinary?

He means that psychologists, sociologists, anthropologists, neuroscientists, and medical researchers all share an interest in development through the lifespan.

What does Paul Baltes mean when saying the life-span perspective view development as contextual?

He means that all development occurs within a context, or setting, which includes families, schools, peer groups, churches, cities, neighborhoods, countries, etc. and these contexts are influenced by historical, economic, social, and cultural influences.

Contexts are affected by what influences?

• Historical.

• Economic.

• Social.

• Cultural.

Each context of development exerts what three types of influences?

• Normative age-graded influences.

• Normative history-graded influences.

• Nonnormative or highly individualized life events.

What are normative age-graded influences?

Influences that are similar for individuals in a particular age group.

• Biological processes such as puberty and menopause.

• Sociocultural, environmental processes such as beginning formal education and retirement.

What are normative history-graded influences?

Influences that are are common to people of a particular generation because of historical circumstances.

• Shared experiences.

• Long-term changes in the genetic and cultural makeup of a population due to immigration or fertility rates.

What are nonnormative or highly individualized life events?

These are unusual occurrences that have a major impact on the individual's life.

• Death of a parent when child is young.

• Pregnancy in early adolescence.

• House fire.

• Winning the lottery.

Contemporary concerns in life-span development include what?

• Health and well-being.

• Parenting and education.

• Sociocultural contexts.

• Technology.

• Social policy.

Health and well-being

Considers the powerful parts that lifestyles and psychological states play in health, well-being, and developmental outcomes.

Parenting and education

Considers issues like childcare, the effects of divorce, parenting styles, intergenerational relationships, early childhood education and lifelong learning outcomes, children with disabilities, bilingual education, same-sex parenting, etc.

Special concerns with technology

The recent dramatic increase in technology and the use of technology at different points of the lifespan.

Social policy

A government’s course of action designed to promote the welfare of its citizens, shaped by values, economics, and politics.

• Special concern: Creating effective social policy, especially to protect the well-being of children and older adults

The four concepts in understanding sociocultural contexts are?

• Culture.

  • Cross-cultural studies.

• Ethnicity.

• Socioeconomic status.

• Gender.

Culture

Behavior patterns, beliefs, and other products of a particular group of people that are passed on from generation to generation.

Cross-cultural studies

Compares aspects of two or more cultures to see if development universal (similar) across cultures or is it culture specific.

Ethnicity

Rooted in cultural heritage, nationality, race, religion, and language.

• Special concern: Ethnic minority children facing prejudice and discrimination.

Socioeconomic status

Refers to a person’s position within society based on occupational, educational, and economic characteristics.

• Special concern: Inequalities/unequal opportunities implied by SES; children in poverty.

Gender

The characteristics of people as females and males, which are central to our identity and social relationships.

• Special concerns: transgender individuals (individuals who adopt a gender identity that differs from the one assigned to them at birth) and conditions for women such as inadequate educational opportunities, violence, lack of political access.

What are the two concepts that help provide a framework for describing and understanding an individual’s development?

• Processes.

• Periods.

Processes

The pattern of development is a complex product of biological, cognitive, and sociocultural processes.

Periods

Time frames in a person’s life that are characterized by certain features/changes.

Biological processes

Produces changes in an individual’s physical nature.

• Genes inherited from parents.

• The development of the brain.

• Height and weight gains.

• Changes in motor skills.

• Nutrition.

• Exercise.

• The hormonal changes of puberty.

• Cardiovascular decline.

Cognitive processes

Refers to changes in an individual’s thinking, intelligence and language.

• Watching a colorful mobile swinging above the crib.

• Putting together a two-word sentence.

• Memorizing a poem.

• Imagining what it would be like to be a movie star.

• Solving a crossword puzzle.

Socioemotional processes

Involves changes in an individual’s relationships with other people, in emotional regulation, and in personality.

• An infant’s smile in response to a parent’s touch.

• A toddler’s aggressive attack on a playmate.

• A school-age child’s development of assertiveness.

• An adolescent’s joy at the senior prom.

• The affection of an elderly couple.

What makes some children resilient to poverty and other adversities?

• A number of individual factors influence resiliency, such as good intellectual functioning.

• Family and extrafamilial contexts, such as close relationships with caring parent figures and other adults outside the family.

The most widely used classification of developmental periods involves an eight-period sequence which includes?

• Prenatal period.

• Infancy.

• Early childhood.

• Middle and late childhood.

• Adolescence.

• Early adulthood.

• Middle adulthood.

• Late adulthood.

Prenatal period

The 9-month period from conception to birth that involves tremendous growth from a single cell to a complete organism with a brain and behavioral capacities.

Infancy

From birth to 18 or 24 months when humans are extremely dependent on adults. During this period, many psychological activities are just beginning, such as:

• Language.

• Symbolic thought.

• Sensorimotor coordination.

• Social learning.

Early Childhood

From the end of infancy to age 5 or 6. Sometimes called the “preschool years”, the end marked by first grade. During this time, children:

• Learn to become more self-sufficient and to care for themselves.

• Develop school readiness skills (e.g., the ability to follow instructions and identify letters).

• Spend many hours playing with peers.

Middle and late childhood

From about 6 to 11 years of age, corresponding with the elementary school years. During this period, children:

• Master the fundamental skills of reading, writing, and arithmetic.

• Are formally exposed to the world outside of the family and to culture.

• Demonstrate an increase in self-control.

• Prominent theme: Achievement.

Adolescence

Encompasses the transition from childhood to early adulthood, at 10 to 12 years of age and ending at 18 to 22 years of age.

• Begins with the rapid physical changes of puberty (dramatic gain in height and weight, changes in body contour, development of sexual characteristics).

• Prominent themes: Independence and identity.

• Thought is more logical, abstract, and idealistic.

• More time spent outside of the family.

Emerging Adulthood

The transition between adolescence and adulthood, at 18 to 25 years of age. A time of considerable exploration and experimentation, especially in the areas of identity, careers, and lifestyles.

Young-old

Refers to individuals 65 through 84 years of age, when there is substantial potential for physical and cognitive fitness.

Oldest-old

Refers to individuals 85 years of age and older, where major change takes place.

What are the 4 types of age?

• Chronological age

• Biological age

• Psychological age

• Social age

A 70-year-old man (chronological age) might be in good physical health (biological age) but might be experiencing memory problems and having trouble coping with the demands placed on him by his wife’s recent hospitalization (psychological age) and dealing with a lack of social support (social age).

Chronological age

Actual age.

Biological age

A person’s age in terms of biological health; involves knowing the functional capacities of a person’s vital organs.

Psychological age

An individual’s adaptive capacities compared with those of other individuals of the same chronological age.

• Ex: Older adults who continue to learn, remain flexible, are motivated, think clearly, and have positive personality traits are engaging in adaptive behaviors.

Social age

Refers to connectedness with others and the social roles individuals adopt.

• Ex: Individuals who have better social relationships with others are happier and tend to live longer.

What are the 3 developmental patterns of aging?

• Normal aging

• Pathological aging

• Successful aging

Normal aging

Characterizes most individuals, for whom psychological functioning often peaks early in middle age, remains relatively stable until the late fifties to early sixties, and then slows to a modest decline through the eighties.

Pathological aging

Characterizes individuals who show greater than average decline as they age through the adult years.

• In early old age, they may have mild cognitive impairment, develop Alzheimer disease later, or have chronic disease that impairs their daily functioning.

Successful aging

Characterizes individuals whose positive physical, cognitive, and socioemotional development is maintained longer, declining later in old age than is the case for most people.

What are the three main issues about the nature of development?

• Nature-nurture

• Stability-change

• Continuity-discontinuity

Nature-nurture

The extent to which development is influenced by nature and by nurture.

Nature

Refers to an organism’s biological inheritance.

Nurture

Refers to environmental experiences.

Epigenetic view

States that development reflects an ongoing, bidirectional interchange between genes and the environment.

Stability-change

The extent to which early traits and characteristics persist or change over time.

Continuity-discontinuity.

The extent to which development involves either gradual, cumulative change (continuity) or distinct stages (discontinuity).

Scientific method

The best tool we have to answer our questions about development.

• It is a four-step process.

Theory

An interrelated, coherent set of ideas that helps to explain phenomena and make predictions.

• Theories may suggest hypotheses, which are specific assertions and predictions that can be tested.

Theories of development

How we have tried to answer questions about development, including those related to the three major issues of nature-nurture, stability- change, and continuity-discontinuity.

• Look at development from different perspectives.

• Disagree about certain aspects of development.

• Have complementary ideas, each contributing to the larger puzzle.

The major theoretical orientations of development include?

• Psychoanalytic.

• Cognitive.

• Behavioral & Social Cognitive.

• Ethological.

• Ecological.

Psychoanalytic theories of development

Describes development as primarily unconscious, or beyond awareness.

• Psychoanalytic theories include:

  • Sigmund Freud’s Psychosexual Theory.

  • Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory.

Sigmund Freud’s Psychosexual Theory

Believed that we go through the following five stages of psychosexual development:

• Oral.

• Anal.

• Phallic.

• Latency.

• Genital.

Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory

Believed that we develop in eight psychosocial stages, with the primary motivation for our behavior being social rather than sexual.

• Believed developmental change occurs throughout the lifespan, rather than only in the first five years of life.

• Believed that both early and later experiences are important, rather earlier experiences trumping later experiences.

At each stage of Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory, a unique developmental task confronts individuals with a _______ that must be resolved.

Crisis.

What are Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development?

• Trust versus mistrust

• Autonomy versus shame and doubt

• Initiative versus guilt

• Industry versus inferiority

• Identity versus identity confusion

• Intimacy versus isolation

• Generativity versus stagnation

• Integrity versus despair

Trust versus mistrust (Erikson)

Occurs during infancy, first year of life.

Autonomy versus shame and doubt (Erikson)

Occurs during infancy, 1 to 3 years of age.

Initiative versus guilt (Erikson)

Occurs during early childhood, preschool years, 3-5 years of age.

Industry versus inferiority (Erikson)

Occurs during middle and late childhood, elementary school years, 6 years of age to puberty.

Identity versus identity confusion (Erikson)

Occurs during adolescence, 10 to 20 years of age.

Intimacy versus isolation (Erikson)

Occurs during early adulthood, 20s/30s.

Generativity versus stagnation (Erikson)

Occurs during middle adulthood, 40s/50s.

Integrity versus despair (Erikson)

Occurs during late adulthood, 60s onward.

Cognitive theories of development

Emphasize conscious thoughts.

What are the 3 important cognitive theories?

• Piaget’s cognitive developmental theory.

• Vygotsky’s sociocultural cognitive theory.

• Information- processing theory.

Piaget’s cognitive developmental theory

Children actively construct their understanding of the world and go through four age-related stages of cognitive development which are qualitatively different from one another.

• Two processes move children through the stages:

  • Organization

  • Adaptation

Organization (Piaget)

Organization of experiences to make sense of the world.

• Separate important ideas from less important ideas.

• Connect one idea to another.

Adaptation (Piaget)

Adjustment to new environmental demands.

Piaget’s four stages of cognitive development are?

• Sensorimotor stage

• Preoperational stage

• Concrete operational stage

• Formal operational stage

Sensorimotor stage (Piaget)

Occurs from birth to 2 years of age.

Preoperational stage (Piaget)

Occurs from 2 to 7 years of age.

Concrete operational stage (Piaget)

Occurs from 7 to 11 years of age.

Formal operational stage (Piaget)

Occurs from 11 years of age through adulthood.

Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Cognitive Theory

Believed that children actively construct their knowledge of the world through social interaction and culture.

• The development of memory, attention, and reasoning involves learning to use the inventions of society, such as language, mathematical systems, and memory strategies.

• Social interaction with more skilled adults and peers gives children the tools they need to thrive in their culture.

• Did not believe that development occurred in stages.

Information-Processing Theory

Emphasizes that individuals manipulate information, monitor it, and strategize about it.

• Psychologists began to wonder whether the logical operations carried out by computers might tell us something about how the human mind works (hardware = the brain, software = cognition).

• No stages -- individuals develop a gradually increasing capacity for processing information, which allows them to acquire increasingly complex knowledge and skills.

The Information-Processing Theory uses the computer analogy, position that the _______________________ = computer hardware, _______________________ = computer software, and _______________________= information or data entered into a computer.

• Physical brain

• Cognition

• Sensory and perceptual input

Robert Siegler

Believed that information procession is thinking.

• When individuals perceive, encode, represent, sore, and retrieve information, they are thinking.

• Believed that an important aspect of development is learning good strategies for processing information.

• Thought the best way to understand how children learn is to observe them while they are learning to discover not just what they know, but the cognitive processes involved in how they acquired that knowledge.

  • Microgenetic method: a means of obtaining detailed information about processing mechanisms as they are occurring moment to moment.

Behaviorism

Posits that we can study scientifically only what can be directly observed and measured.

• Development within behaviorism is defined as observable behavior that can be learned through experience with the environment.

• Emphasizes continuity in development.

• No stages.

Development within behaviorism is defined as?

Observable behavior that can be learned through experience with the environment.

Behavioral and social cognitive theories include?

• Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning

• Skinner’s Operant Conditioning

• Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory

Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning

A neutral stimulus (e.g., the ringing bell) produces a response originally produced by another stimulus (e.g., food).

• Knew that dogs salivate when they taste food.

• Became curious when he observed that dogs salivate to various sights and sounds before eating their food.

• Paired the ringing of a bell with food, and the bell elicited salivation on its own.

John B. Watson

Demonstrated classical conditioning in humans.

• Showed infant (Albert) a white rat to see if he was afraid of it.

• Albert was not afraid of the white rat.

• While Albert played with the rat, a loud noise was made behind his head, and Albert began to cry.

• After several pairings of the loud noise and the rat, Albert began to cry just at the sight of the rat.

• Albert had been conditioned to fear the rat.

Skinner’s Operant Conditioning

The consequences of a behavior produce changes in the future probability of the behavior’s occurrence.

• A behavior followed by a rewarding stimulus is more likely to recur, while a behavior followed by a punishing stimulus is less likely to recur.

• Rewards and punishment shape development.

• From the behaviorism standpoint, the key aspect of development is behavior, not thoughts and feelings.

A behavior followed by a _______ stimulus is more likely to recur, while a behavior followed by a ________ stimulus is less likely to recur.

Rewarding, punishing.

Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory

Believed that there are three key factors in development that operate interactively.

• Behavior

• Person/Cognition

  • Forethought: individuals guide and motivate themselves by creating action plans, formulating goals, and visualizing positive outcomes of their actions.

• Environment

Bandura also believed in?

Observational learning (also called imitation or modeling): learning that occurs through observing what others do.

• People cognitively represent the behavior of others and then sometimes adopt this behavior themselves.

• Emphasizes that people acquire a wide range of behaviors, thoughts, and feelings through observing others’ behavior.

Ethology

The study of the behavior of animals in their natural habitat.

Ethological Theory

Stresses that behavior is strongly influenced by biology, tied to evolution, and is characterized by critical or sensitive periods, which are specific time frames during which the presence or absence of certain experiences has a long-lasting influence on individuals.