Chapter 4: Satellite Geodesy and Geodetic Reference of Galileo

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Last updated 9:04 PM on 8/7/26
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11 Terms

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What is Geodesy?

Geodesy is the science of determining the Earth's size, shape, gravity field, and rotation as they change over time.

Because our planet is constantly in motion—from the shifting of tectonic plates to the melting of ice sheets—geodesy is essential for understanding and quantifying these changes.

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What is Geodesy? Its primary tasks include:

Determining precise locations on Earth's surface.


Establishing and maintaining coordinate systems, known as reference frames.


Monitoring Earth's gravity field and rotation.


Tracking continental drift, sea-level changes, and the global water cycle.


To achieve this, geodesy uses a combination of ground-based and space-based measurement techniques that work together as one large, comprehensive "geodetic instrument".

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The Four Primary Space Geodetic Techniques

1. Very Long Baseline Interferometry (VLBI)

2. Satellite Laser Ranging (SLR)

3. Doppler Orbitography and Radiopositioning Integrated by Satellite (DORIS)

4. Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS)

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1. Very Long Baseline Interferometry (VLBI)

VLBI measures the time delay of radio signals from distant quasars using telescopes thousands of kilometers apart. Because quasars are fixed in space, VLBI connects the Earth to the International Celestial Reference Frame (ICRF) and directly measures Earth's rotation and orientation (UT1-UTC). It is coordinated by the IVS.


Çok uzaktaki sabit uzay cisimlerinden (kuasarlardan) gelen radyo sinyallerini, aralarında binlerce kilometre olan iki teleskop aynı anda dinler. Sinyalin iki teleskopa varış süresi arasındaki zaman farkı (time delay) hesaplanır. Kuasarlar uzayda çakılı/sabit noktalar olduğu için gökyüzü referans sistemini (ICRF) kuran ve Dünya'nın kendi etrafındaki yalpalama/dönüşünü (Earth orientation) doğrudan ölçen tek tekniktir.

  • Memory Hook: Quasars + Time Delay + Celestial Frame (ICRF) + Earth Rotation.


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The Four Primary Space Geodetic Techniques

2. Satellite Laser Ranging (SLR)

SLR fires short laser pulses from a ground station to satellites with retroreflectors and measures the two-way round-trip time. It provides unambiguous geometric distance, determines the Earth's center of mass (geocenter), and defines the scale (meter definition) of the terrestrial reference frame. It is coordinated by the ILRS.

Yerdeki istasyondan uyduya lazer atılır, uydudaki özel prizmalar (corner cube reflectors) bu lazeri geldigi yönde geriye yansıtır. Lazerin gidip gelme toplam süresi (round-trip time) ölçülerek uydu ile yer arasındaki net mesafe bulunur. Sinyal tam sayı belirsizliği (ambiguity) yoktur. En hayati katkısı: Dünya'nın tam kütle/ağırlık merkezini (geocenter) ve referans sisteminin ölçeğini (scale / metre tanımını) doğrudan belirleyen ana tekniktir.

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The Four Primary Space Geodetic Techniques

3. Doppler Orbitography and Radiopositioning Integrated by Satellite (DORIS)

DORIS works in reverse: ground beacons transmit signals upward to a receiver on the satellite, which measures the Doppler shift to determine the satellite's velocity relative to the beacon. It provides excellent global coverage and is ideal for Precise Orbit Determination (POD) of LEO satellites (e.g., ocean altimetry). It is coordinated by the IDS

Klasik sistemlerin tam tersi (tersine) çalışma mantığına sahiptir: Uydu sinyal fırlatmaz, yerdeki istasyonlar (beacons) yukarıya doğru sinyal yayınlar. Uydudaki alıcı, istasyonun üstünden geçerken frekanstaki değişimi yani Doppler kaymasını (Doppler shift) ölçer. Bu sayede uydunun hızı ve yörüngesi bulunur. Kutup ve ıssız adalar dahil tüm dünyaya yayıldığı için özellikle LEO (alçak yörünge) uydularının hassas yörünge belirlemesinde (POD) kullanılır.

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The Four Primary Space Geodetic Techniques

4. Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS)

GNSS uses a dense global ground network to continuously track satellite constellations (GPS, Galileo, etc.). It provides continuous, all-weather measurements with the highest station density, making it ideal for densifying reference frames and monitoring dynamic crustal deformation in near real-time. It is coordinated by the IGS


Yeryüzündeki binlerce sabitleşmiş GNSS istasyonu, yukarıdaki uyduları gece-gündüz kesintisiz dinler. VLBI veya SLR gibi teknikler az sayıda pahalı istasyona sahipken, GNSS en yüksek istasyon yoğunluğuna (highest density) sahiptir. Bu sayede haritacılıkta referans ağlarını sıklaştırmak (densification) ve tektonik levha hareketlerini / yer kabuğu değişimlerini anlık (real-time) izlemek için ana omurgadır.

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Terrestrial Reference Systems vs. Frames

What is a Reference System and What is it for?

A Reference System is the theoretical definition of a coordinate system.

It's the set of conventions, models, and constants that define the origin, scale, and orientation of the axes.

The International Terrestrial Reference System (ITRS) is a spatial reference system that rotates with the Earth.

It defines:

Origin: The Earth's center of mass (including oceans and atmosphere).

Scale: The meter, as defined by the speed of light.

Orientation: The axes are defined by the direction of the Earth's rotational pole (Z-axis) and the prime meridian (X-axis) at a specific point in time.

A reference system is essential because position is always relative. It provides the fundamental grid that allows us to assign unambiguous coordinates to any point on or near the Earth and to consistently measure changes over time.

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How to Realize reference system?

A theoretical system is made practical through a Reference Frame

A Reference Frame is the physical realization or materialization of a system.

The International Terrestrial Reference Frame (ITRF) is the most precise physical realization of the ITRS.

  1. Establishing a global network of geodetic observatories, where the four key space techniques (VLBI, SLR, DORIS, GNSS) are often co-located.

  2. Continuously collecting measurement data over many years from this network.

  3. Combining and analyzing all this data to produce a list of highly precise 3D coordinates and velocities for each physical station marker on the ground

"A Reference System (e.g., ITRS) is a theoretical set of definitions, origin, orientation, and scale. It is essential because position is always relative.

It is physically realized as a Reference Frame (e.g., ITRF) by:

A global network of geodetic observatories (combining VLBI, SLR, DORIS, GNSS).

Continuous measurement data over time.

Computing precise 3D coordinates and velocities for ground station markers.

ın short: System = Theory/Rules, Frame = Physical Realization.


Konum her zaman göreceli olduğu için koordinat belirlemek adına hayali bir ızgaraya (orijin, eksenler, ölçek) ihtiyaç duyarız.

  • Reference System (ITRS): Matematiksel ve teorik kurallar / tanımlar kümesidir (Kağıt üzerindeki tanım).

  • Reference Frame (ITRF): Bu sistemin dünyadaki fiziksel karşılığıdır (somutlaşmış halidir). Yer küreye dikilmiş gerçek gözlemevleri (VLBI, SLR, DORIS, GNSS istasyonları) ve bunların hassas koordinat/hız listesiyle hayata geçirilir.

Aklında kalsın: "Sistem kuraldır, Frame (Çerçeve) ise o kuralın yerdeki somut kazığı/istasyonudur."

  • Memory Hook: System = Mathematical Model / Frame = Physical Stations + Coordinates (VLBI, SLR, DORIS, GNSS).


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4.4 The Galileo Terrestrial Reference Frame (GTRF)

GTRF (Galileo Terrestrial Reference Frame) is Galileo's independent realization of the ITRS. It is generated by combining solutions from multiple processing centers and is aligned with the ITRF to within a few millimeters, ensuring high accuracy and interoperability with other systems.

Galileo uyduları konum hesaplarken uzayda kendine özel bir koordinat ağı kullanır. Bu ağın adı GTRF'dir. GTRF, uluslararası standart kural olan ITRS'nin Galileo tarafından bağımsız olarak hayata geçirilmiş halidir. En önemli özelliği, küresel standart olan ITRF ile milimetre düzeyinde tam uyumlu (aligned) olmasıdır. Bu sayede Galileo ile GPS verileri çakışmadan, pürüzsüzce birlikte kullanılabilir.

Memory Hook: Galileo's ITRS Realization + Aligned with ITRF (Millimeter accuracy) + Interoperability.

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4.5 The Future of Geodesy: The GENESIS Mission

GENESIS is a future ESA satellite co-locating all four space geodetic techniques (VLBI, SLR, DORIS, GNSS) on a single platform. Instead of ground-based 'terrestrial ties', it provides a direct 'space tie' to eliminate technique-specific biases. This will improve the ITRF accuracy to 1 mm and stability to 0.1 mm/year.

Şu anki ITRF oluşturulurken 4 ana teknik (VLBI, SLR, DORIS, GNSS) yerdeki istasyonlarda fiziksel ölçümlerle (terrestrial ties) birbirine bağlanmaya çalışılır. Ancak teknikler arası sistematik hatalar/farklar oluşur.

ESA'nın GENESIS görevi bu 4 tekniğin cihazlarını tek bir uydunun üzerine ("uçan laboratuvar") yerleştiriyor. Yer yerine uzayda yapılan bu birleştirmeye "space tie" denir. Bu sayede teknikler arasındaki sistematik hatalar sıfırlanarak ITRF doğruluğu 1 mm seviyesine indirilecek.