Exam 1

Psychology

The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

Mental processes versus observable behavior

Mental processes are private thoughts, feelings, and motives that cannot be directly observed, whereas observable behavior includes all actions that can be directly witnessed and measured.

Structuralism

An early psychological perspective aimed at identifying the basic components or structures of the human mind, largely through introspection.

Functionalism

An early psychological perspective focused on the functions and adaptive purposes of the mind and behavior in coping with the environment.

Introspection

A research technique used by early structuralists that required trained individuals to look inward and systematically report their conscious thoughts and sensations.

Empirical evidence

Information gained through direct, systematic observation, measurement, and experimentation rather than personal speculation or opinion.

Biological approach

A psychological perspective focusing on physical body systems, particularly the brain, neurochemistry, and nervous system, to explain behavior and mental processes.

Behavioral approach

A psychological perspective emphasizing the scientific study of observable behavioral responses and their environmental determinants.

Psychodynamic approach

A psychological perspective emphasizing unconscious thoughts, conflict between biological drives and societal demands, and early childhood experiences.

Humanistic approach

A psychological perspective emphasizing a person's positive qualities, capacity for personal growth, and freedom to choose their destiny.

Cognitive approach

A psychological perspective centered on the mental processes involved in knowing, perceiving, remembering, thinking, and problem-solving.

Evolutionary approach

A psychological perspective centered on evolutionary concepts such as natural selection, adaptation, and reproductive success to explain human behaviors.

Sociocultural approach

A psychological perspective examining how social and cultural environments influence behavior and mental processes.

Theory

A broad idea or set of closely related principles that attempts to explain observations and predict future outcomes.

Hypothesis

A specific, testable prediction derived logically from a theory.

Operational definition

An objective description of how a variable will be specifically measured, manipulated, or observed in a research study.

Descriptive research

A research design aimed at observing, recording, and describing basic dimensions or frequencies of a phenomenon without manipulating variables.

Correlational research

A research design that examines the relationship between two or more variables to determine if and how they change together.

Experimental research

A research design that establishes causal relationships by manipulating one or more variables while controlling all other extraneous factors.

Naturalistic observation

An observational research method involving the systematic recording of behavior in real-world settings without intervention or manipulation.

Correlation coefficient

A numerical statistic represented by $r$, ranging from $-1.00$ to $+1.00$, indicating the strength and direction of the linear relationship between two variables.

Third-variable problem

A confound in correlational research where an unmeasured extraneous variable causes the observed relationship between two measured variables.

Independent variable

The experimental factor that is manipulated or varied by the researcher to determine its causal impact.

Dependent variable

The outcome or response factor measured in an experiment, which changes in response to manipulations of the independent variable.

Demand characteristics

Subtle cues in a research setting that communicate to participants what behavior is expected, potentially altering their response.

Placebo effect

A phenomenon where participants' expectations produce a measurable outcome rather than the active physical treatment itself.

Random assignment

The process of placing participants into experimental conditions purely by chance to minimize pre-existing individual differences between groups.

Random sampling

A participant selection method that gives every member of a target population an equal probability of being chosen for a study.

Population versus sample

A population is the entire target group about which conclusions are drawn, whereas a sample is the smaller subset selected to represent that population.

APA ethical guidelines

Ethical principles governing research that require informed consent, confidentiality, debriefing, protection from harm, and restriction of deception.

Afferent versus efferent nerves

Afferent nerves are sensory nerves that arrive at the central nervous system carrying input, whereas efferent nerves are motor nerves that exit the central nervous system carrying signals to muscles and organs.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

The primary structural division of the nervous system consisting exclusively of the brain and spinal cord.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

The network of nerves connecting the brain and spinal cord to the rest of the body, divided into somatic and autonomic systems.

Somatic nervous system

The branch of the peripheral nervous system that conveys sensory information to the central nervous system and controls voluntary movement of skeletal muscles.

Autonomic nervous system

The branch of the peripheral nervous system that involuntarily regulates internal organ functioning, divided into sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions.

Sympathetic versus parasympathetic nervous system

The sympathetic division arouses the body for action during stressful situations ('fight or flight'), whereas the parasympathetic division calms the body and conserves energy ('rest and digest').

Brain plasticity

The neurobiological capacity of the brain to adapt, reorganize, and alter its structure and function in response to experience or injury.

GABA versus glutamate

GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid) is the primary inhibitory neurotransmitter that dampens neural firing, whereas glutamate is the primary excitatory neurotransmitter that enhances neural firing.

Dopamine

A neurotransmitter involved in motor control, voluntary movement, reward processing, pleasure, and motivation.

Brain lesioning

A research or clinical method involving the destruction or surgical removal of specific brain tissue to observe resulting behavioral changes.