npb 110c m1

Physiology is the…

study of biological functions and processes in living organisms

physiology also

focuses on the underlying mechanism of the body process

physiology is closely related to anatomy

• anatomy is the structure of the body

structure and function

are inseparable

Levels of organization in the body

• (smallest) chemical

• cellular

• tissue

• organ

• body system

the chemical level

(the smallest level) various atoms and molecules make up the body

atoms:oxygen, carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen

molecules of life: proteins, carbohydrates fats and nucleic acids (genetic materials: deoxyribonucleic acid(DNA))

The cellular level

• cells are the basic unit of life

• have basic and specialized functions

• example : a cell in the stomach lining

The tissue level

four primary types of tissues:

Muscle tissue

nervous tissue

epithelial tissue

connective tissue

Muscle tissue:

skeletal, cardiac and smooth (vessels and hallow tubes)

nervous tissue

initiate and transmit electrical impulses (ways for communications)

epithelial tissue

change material between the cells and environment

connective tissue

connects, supports and anchors various body parts

The organ level

is the a unit made up of several tissue types

consist of two or more types of primary tissues organized to perform particular functions

an example of the organ level: the stomach

consist of:

epithelial tissue

muscle tissue

nervous tissue

connective tissue

The body systems level

a collection of organs that performs related functions

organs interacting to accomplish a common activity essential for survival

the eleven systems to focus on:

circulatory, digestive, respirator, urinary, skeletal, muscular, integumentary, immune, nervous, endocrine and reproductive

homeostasis

a dynamic maintenance of a stable internal environment within and organism

cells in a multicellular organism

cannot live and education without the other body cells

most are not in direct contact w/ any with the surrounding external environment in which and organism lives

homestasis:(1)

a dynamic maintenance of a stable internal environment within and organism

homestasis (2):

essential to survival of each cell; it requires continual exchange of materials between the intracellular and extrcellular spaces

homestasis (3):

each body system contributes by counteracting changes of internal environment

examples of homeostatic-ally regulated factors (1-3)

• concentration of nutrients

• concentration of O2 and CO2

• concentration of waste products

examples of homeostatic-ally regulated factors (4-7)

• changes in ph

• concentration of water salts and other electrolytes

• volume and pressure

• temperature

what is a homeostatic control system

• an interconnected network of body components

• operates to maintain a given factor in the internal environment at a relatively constant optimal level

to maintain homeostasis, the control; systems must be able to

detect deviation from normal

integrate this information with other information

make adjustment to restore the factor to normal

homeostatic control systems

physiological principles:

negative feedback

positive feedback

feedforward control

negative feedback

changes in a controlled a variable triggers a response that opposes the change

example: body temp getting too hot so your body has cool back down

positive feedback

reinforces the change in a controlled variable, occurs relatively rarely

example when child birth contractions get stronger

feedforward control

response occurring in anticipation of a change in a control variable

example such as anticipation about what is to happen

if there is a disruption in homeostasis

this could lead to illness and death

pathophysiology:

abnormal function of the body associated with disease

when a homeostatic disruption becomes so severe…

that it is no longer compatible with survival, death results

Humans obtain ENERGY…

by breaking bone between atoms and molecules in food through a process called metabolism

An apple has

Glucose: 6C 12H & 6O

We have to take the energy in the bond then…

transform it into energy that can be used, energy has to be transferred from original bonds to high energy molecule ATP

Energy?

The capacity to perform work

Energy can not

be created or destroyed

Metabolism

All the chemical reaction our body

Catabolic

Breaks down, breaking down complex molecules to harvest ATP

Anabolic

builds up, body uses the energy released by catabolism to synthesis complex molecules

Metabolism equation..

Anabolism + Catabolism = Metabolism

Conversion of amino acids into proteins

we are building up so…anabolism

Conversion of fats into triglycerides

we are making something bigger….anabolism

conversion of proteins into amino acids

catabolism- making something smaller

fatty acids into lipids

Anabolism because fatty acids are a smaller version of lipids

In the prescience of O2, humans process energy via

Aerobic respiration

aerobic respiration

a process that transform energy from the chemical bonds of food to energy into the bonds of small molceule ATP

Aerobic respiration formula

Glucose + 6 O2—> 6CO2 + 6 H2O + energy (ATP)

To harvest energy we have to:

Get That Cell Energy: 1. Glycolysis (in cytoplasm) 2. Transition reaction 3. Citric acids (kreb cycle) 4. Electron transport chain

AR: we start with 6 Carbons on glucose :step 1

Then an enzyme comes along and splits the molecule into (2)3 carbon molecules, this is now pyruvate

After we have pyruvate 2(3) carbons…:step 1

so we go to our end product 2 ATP and 2(3) Carbons pyruvate (first step: glycolysis)

On pyruvate is then turned into :step 2

1 acetyl co A and we lose a carbon (transformation: has to have O2)

The 2 carbons….: step 3

Then come done and combine with 4 carbons so we have a 6 carbo molecule then goes backward : citric acid/kreb cycle (sugar dismembering) yielding two 2ATP Overall 4ATP

Taking high energy electrons from earlier process and move down to the inner membrane: step 4

transferring energy from redox reaction yielding ATP 32: electron transport chain- we are using the stored food

Glucose like a…

checking account and ATP money

Polysaccharides: are a storage form of

glucose, storing complex carbohydrates : long-term retirement account

Think of energy process as

buying a burrito: polysaccharides:storage form of glucose, after glucose: source of energy: checking account, after ATP; cash

The main players:

Glucose, amino acids, glycerol and fatty acids

The nutrient pools are

Proteins, Glycogen and Fat

The intermediate of protein is

amino acids

The intermediate of glycogen

is glucose

fats (triglycerides) have the intermediates of

glycerol and fatty acids

Glucose is the “ “ source of energy yielding 4 kcal/g

quickest

Protein can also…

be used for energy yielding 4 k cal

fats ( triglycerides) yield the…

highest amount of energy at 9kcal and is used as a long term energy source

the glucose blood concentration is closely regulated by 3 nutrients pool….

using the intermediates such as the carbohydrates (glucose), fats ( fatty acids and glycerol) and proteins (amino acids)

glucose is highly regulated because…

the brain can only use glucose and ketones

If we were to say that glucose levels were to drop then…

the brain would still be able to receive glucose

Glucose pool: used primarily

by most tissue if in normal range

Glucose that is not used is stored as

glycogen in the liver and skeletal through glycogenesis

If there is excess glucose that is then converted to

fat stores through lipogenesis

if there is a low amount of glucose then glycogen will be converted

back to glucose via glycogenolysis

Amino acids can also be converted to glucose (if levels too low) through

gluconeogensis

Free fatty acids pool are used as energy sources but are stored as

fats

if glycogen level were to run low, lipolysis occurs in order to provide energy

so turning fats(Triglycerides) stores in intermediates (free fatty acids and glycerol) to energy

Focusing on only glycerol…

this can be converted to glucose via gluconeogenesis but NOT fatty acids

Instead fatty acids can undergo

beta oxidation which then enters kreb cycle to be used as energy

fatty acids break is “ “ than kreb cycle can…

metabolize the excess acyl unit become ketone bodies

Ketogenesis

breaking down fatty acids into energy (in the liver)

amino acid used primarily for…

protein synthesis

If food consumption were to be low… (aa)

aa’s can be converted to glucose via guconeogensis

People with diabetes are often advised to limit their intake of carbohydrates. If one of these individuals strictly followed this regimen, which of the following biomolecular processes would be options that their body could utilize to provide energy for cellular work? SELECT ALL THAT APPLY

A. Ketogenesis B. Gluconeogenesis C. Lipolysis D. Glycogenesis

A, B, & C

Metabolism

the sum of all chemical run in the body

In the absorptive state (fed state)

the net anabolic rxs> net catabolic run

In the absorptive state (fed state) there is “ “ glucose

abundant amount of

In the fed state the energy from the nutrient are

either transformed into high energy compounds (ATP) or stored in chemical bonds (protein synthesis, lipogenesis, glycogenesis)

The hormone insulin “ “ in the fed state

dominates

Post absorptive state

Net anabolic rxn < net catabolic rxn

The energy stored in fasted state

are mobilized to provide energy

Fasted state

cell break down larger storage molecules into smaller molecules (via glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis, ketogenesis)
ketogenesis)

In the fasted state hormone

glucagon dominates

The pancreas helps regulate…

homeostatic control of metabolism by regulating glucose via 2 key hormones: insulin and glucagon

The pancreas has both types of tissues

endocrine and exocrine tissue

endocrine glands

secrete products directly into the blood stream

exocrine glands

secrete substances into ductal system to an epithelial surface

the regulation of metabolism depends on the ratio of

insulin to glucagon

Pancreatic islets

islets of langerhans

islet of langerhans

beta cells —> insulin

alpha cells —> glucagon

delta cells —> somatostatin (an intermediate)

There is homeostatic control of metabolism via insulin…

insulin assist in glucose utilization (energy)