Nutrition chapter 4, 5, 6

HED 220

carbohydrates

compounds composed of single or multiple sugars (CHO)

complex carnohydrates

long chains of sugar units arranged to form starch or fiber (polysaccharides)

simple carbohydrates

sugar, including both single sugar units and linked pairs of sugar units. The basic sugar unit contains 6 carbon atoms

photosynthesis

the process by which green plants make carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water using the green pigment chlorophyll to capture the sun’s energy

chlorophyll

the green pigment of plants that captures energy from sunlight for use in photosynthesis.

sugars

simple carbohydrates; that is, molecules of either single sugar units or pairs of those sugar units bonded together

glucose

a single sugar used in both plant and animal tissues for energy

monosaccharides

single sugar units

disacchrides

pairs of single sugars linked together

fructose

a monosaccharide; sometimes known as fruit sugar

added sugars

sugars and syrups added to a food for any purpose, such as to add sweetness or bulk or to aid in browning (sweet carbohydrates)

lactose

disaccharide composed of glucose and galactose; sometimes known as milk sugar

polysaccharides

another term for complex carbohydrates; composed of long strands of glucose units linked together

starch

a plant polysaccharide composed of glucose

glycogen

a highly branched polysaccharide that is made and held in liver and muscle tissues as a storage form of glucose.

fibers

the indigestible parts of plant foods, largely nonstarch polysaccharides that are not digested by human digestive enzymes

whole grains

grains or foods made from them that contain all the parts and naturally occurring nutrients of the entire grain seed, except the inedible husk.

soluble fibers

food components that readily dissolve in water, become viscous, and often impart gummy or gel-like characteristics to foods.

insoluble fibers

the tough, fibrous structures of fruit, vegetables, and grains; indigestible food components that do not dissolve in water.

diabetes

metabolic diseases that impair a person’s ability to regulate blood glucose.

refined

process by which the coarse parts of food products are removed

enriched

addition of nutrients to a refined food product

lactose intolerance

impaired ability to digest lactose due to reduced amounts of the enzyme lactase.

ketosis

an undesirably high concentration of ketone bodies, such as acetone, in the blood or urine.

insulin

a hormone secreted by the pancreas in response to a high blood glucose concentration. It assists cells in drawing glucose from the blood

glucagon

a hormone secreted by the pancreas that stimulates the liver to release glucose into the blood when blood glucose concentration dips

glycemic index (GI)

a ranking of foods according to their potential for raising blood glucose relative to a reference dose of glucose.

type 1 diabetes

the pancreas produces no or very little insulin; often diagnosed in childhood, although some cases arise in adulthood.

type 2 diabetes

the pancreas makes plenty of insulin but the body’s cells resist insulin’s action; often diagnosed in adulthood.

lipid

a family of organic (carbon-containing) compounds soluble in organic solvents but not in water. Include triglycerides (fats and oils), phospholipids, and sterols.

cholesterol

a member of the group of lipids known as sterols; a soft, waxy substance made in the body and also found in animal-derived foods.

triglycerides

made up of three units of fatty acids and one unit of glycerol

phospholipids

similar to triglycerides, but each has a phosphorus-containing structure in place of one of the fatty acids. are present in all cell membranes.

sterols

similar structure to cholesterol

fatty acids

composed of carbon chains of various lengths. Each has an acid end and hydrogens attached to all of the carbon atoms of the chain.

essential fatty acids

fatty acids that the body needs but cannot make and so must be obtained from the diet

polyunsaturated fatty acid

a fatty acid that lacks some hydrogen atoms and has one or more points of unsaturation. (a triglycerides)

saturated fats

most of the fatty acids are saturated

trans fat

contain any number of unusual fatty acids—trans-fatty acids—formed during processing

monounsaturated fats

most of the fatty acids have one point of unsaturation

polyunsaturated fats

most of the fatty acids have two or more points of unsaturation

atherosclerosis

a disease of the arteries characterized by lipid deposits known as plaques along the inner walls of the arteries; a major cause of cardiovascular disease

lipoproteins

clusters of lipids associated with protein, which serve as transport vehicles for lipids in blood and lymph

low-density lipoproteins (LDL)

transport lipids from the liver to other tissues such as muscle and fat; contain a large proportion of cholesterol

high-density lipoproteins (HDL)

return cholesterol from the tissues to the liver for dismantling and disposal; contain a large proportion of protein

hydrogenation

the process of adding hydrogen to unsaturated fatty acids to make fat more solid and resistant to the chemical change of oxidation

proteins

compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen and arranged as strands of amino acids

amino acids

the building blocks of protein. Each has an amine group at one end, an acid group at the other, and a distinctive side chain.

essential amino acids

amino acids that either cannot be synthesized at all by the body or cannot be synthesized in amounts sufficient to the body

peptide bond

a bond that connects one amino acid with another, forming a link in a protein chain

polypeptide

a protein fragment of about 10 to 50 amino acids bonded together

collagen

the chief protein of most connective tissues, including scars, ligaments, and tendons, and the underlying matrix on which bones and teeth are built

enzymes

proteins that facilitate chemical reactions without being changed in the process

hemoglobin

the globular protein of red blood cells, whose iron atoms carry oxygen around the body via the bloodstream

sickle-cell disease

a genetic form of anemia characterized by abnormal sickle- or crescent-shaped red blood cells, which interfere with oxygen transport and blood flow

RNA

cellular nucleic acids that play key roles in the process and control of protein synthesis

denaturation

the irreversible change in a protein’s folded shape brought about by heat, acids, bases, alcohol, salts of heavy metals, or other agents

catalyst

a substance that speeds the rate of a chemical reaction without itself being permanently altered in the process (enzymes)

hormones

chemical messengers secreted by a number of body organs in response to conditions that require regulation

thyroxine

a principal peptide hormone of the thyroid gland that regulates the body’s rate of energy use

serotonin

a compound related in structure to the amino acid tryptophan. It serves as one of the brain’s principal neurotransmitters.

antibodies

large proteins of the blood, produced by the immune system in response to an invasion of the body by foreign substances

immunity

protection from or resistance to a disease or infection by the development of antibodies and by the actions of cells and tissues in response to a threat

edema

swelling of body tissue caused by leakage of fluid from the blood vessels; seen in protein deficiency

acid-base balance

equilibrium between acid and base concentrations in the body fluids

acidosis

the condition of excess acid in the blood, indicated by a below-normal pH

alkalosis

the condition of excess base in the blood, indicated by an above-normal blood pH

urea

the principal nitrogen-excretion product of protein metabolism; generated mostly by removal of amine groups from unneeded amino acids or from amino acids being sacrificed for energy

nitrogen balance

the amount of nitrogen consumed compared with the amount excreted in a given time period

high-quality proteins

dietary proteins containing all the essential amino acids in relatively the same amounts that human beings require

red meats

flesh foods that appear red when raw due to the iron-containing compounds in muscle

processed meats

a general term for meat products preserved by smoking, curing, salting, or adding chemical preservatives

gluten

a type of protein in certain grain foods that triggers a damaging immune response in the small intestine of a person with celiac disease

celiac disease

a disorder characterized by an abnormal immune response, nutrient malabsorption, weight loss, and intestinal inflammation on exposure to the dietary protein gluten

plant-based diet

an eating style consisting largely of healthful vegetables, grains, legumes, fruit, and nuts

vegetarian

any of several dietary patterns that include plant-based foods and eliminate some or all animal-derived foods

flexitarian

a predominantly plant-based diet, with occasional inclusions of meat, poultry, or fish (semi-vegetarian)