Policy and inequality

What was education like before state involvement in Britain?

Before the industrial revolution, education was mainly available to elites and the state had little involvement. Before 1833, the state spent no public money on education, with schooling mainly provided through fee-paying schools for the wealthy and churches or charities for some poor children.

How did industrialisation increase state involvement in education?

Industrialisation created demand for an educated workforce, leading to increased state involvement. Education became compulsory in 1880 for children aged 5–13.

How did education reinforce class inequalities before 1988?

Middle-class children received an academic curriculum preparing them for professional careers and higher-status occupations, while working-class children received basic education focused on literacy, numeracy and discipline to prepare them for factory and routine work.

How would Marxists evaluate education before 1988?

Marxists argue education did not create social mobility but reproduced existing class positions. Working-class pupils were prepared for subordinate roles while middle-class pupils were prepared for higher-status occupations.

What was the aim of the Tripartite System introduced by the 1944 Education Act?

The Tripartite System aimed to create a meritocratic education system where children were selected according to ability rather than social background. Pupils were allocated to different schools through the 11+ examination.

What is meritocracy?

Meritocracy is a system where status is achieved through ability and effort. It assumes everyone has equal opportunities to succeed and rewards are based on individual achievement.

How did the Tripartite System attempt to create meritocracy?

The Tripartite System used the 11+ examination to select pupils based on ability and allocate them to different schools according to academic potential.

What were grammar schools in the Tripartite System?

Grammar schools provided an academic curriculum for pupils considered the most academically able. They prepared students for university, professional careers and non-manual occupations.

Who mainly attended grammar schools under the Tripartite System?

Although grammar schools were designed for the most able pupils, they were mainly attended by middle-class children because they often had greater educational support and cultural capital.

What were secondary modern schools?

Secondary modern schools provided a practical curriculum aimed at preparing pupils for manual employment and lower-skilled jobs. They were mainly attended by working-class pupils who failed the 11+ examination.

What were technical schools in the Tripartite System?

Technical schools were designed to provide technical education for skilled occupations. However, they were rarely established, meaning the system was effectively bipartite rather than tripartite.

Evaluate the Tripartite System from a Marxist perspective.

Marxists argue the Tripartite System claimed to reward ability but actually reproduced class inequality. Middle-class pupils were more likely to pass the 11+ due to better resources, support and cultural capital, while working-class pupils were directed towards lower-status occupational pathways.

How did the Tripartite System contribute to gender inequality?

Girls often needed higher marks than boys to gain grammar school places, showing selection was not purely based on ability and that the system disadvantaged females.

How did the Tripartite System create a myth of meritocracy?

The system created the impression that success and failure were based on natural ability. Marxists argue this legitimised inequality by making social disadvantage appear deserved rather than caused by class inequality.

What was the purpose of comprehensive education introduced from 1965 onwards?

Comprehensive education aimed to reduce inequalities created by the Tripartite System by removing selection at age 11 and allowing all pupils in an area to attend the same school.

How did comprehensive schools change education?

Comprehensive schools abolished the division between grammar and secondary modern schools and removed selection at 11, allowing pupils of different abilities and backgrounds to attend together.

How do Functionalists view comprehensive schools?

Functionalists argue comprehensive schools increase social integration because different social classes mix together and develop shared values. They also argue they are more meritocratic because children have longer to develop their abilities.

How did Julienne Ford (1969) evaluate comprehensive schools?

Ford found limited social mixing between working-class and middle-class pupils because streaming separated students within schools.

How do Marxists criticise comprehensive education?

Marxists argue comprehensives did not remove inequality because streaming and labelling continued. Working-class pupils were often placed into lower streams, creating the appearance of equality while maintaining inequality.

What is marketisation of education?

Marketisation is the introduction of market forces into education through competition and consumer choice. Schools become suppliers competing for pupils, while parents become consumers choosing schools.

What was the Education Reform Act (ERA) 1988?

The Education Reform Act introduced by Margaret Thatcher’s Conservative government created an education market through policies including league tables, Ofsted inspections, open enrolment, formula funding, specialist schools and academies.

How do league tables contribute to marketisation?

League tables publish and rank schools according to exam results. They allow parents to compare schools and encourage schools to improve performance.

What is the purpose of Ofsted inspections?

Ofsted inspections assess and grade schools, providing information to parents and encouraging schools to improve through accountability.

What is open enrolment?

Open enrolment allows parents to apply for schools outside their local area, increasing parental choice.

How does formula funding create competition between schools?

Formula funding means schools receive money based on pupil numbers. Successful schools attract more pupils and therefore receive more funding, while unpopular schools lose resources.

What are specialist schools?

Specialist schools focus on particular areas such as technology, languages or sport. Their purpose is to increase parental choice and allow schools to develop distinctive identities.

What are academies?

Academies are schools removed from local authority control that receive funding directly from the government.

What are free schools?

Free schools are schools created by groups such as parents, teachers, businesses or faith organisations outside traditional local authority structures.

What is parentocracy according to Miriam David (1993)?

Parentocracy means “rule by parents”. David argues marketisation gives parents control over education through school choice.

How does Ball criticise the idea of parentocracy?

Ball argues parentocracy is a myth because not all parents have equal ability to choose schools. Middle-class parents have greater economic and cultural capital, giving them advantages in navigating the education system.

How does economic capital give middle-class parents an advantage in education choice?

Middle-class parents can use money to move house, afford transport and access better schools, increasing their ability to exercise choice.

How does cultural capital give middle-class parents an advantage in education choice?

Middle-class parents often understand admissions systems, know how to communicate with schools and have confidence in making educational decisions.

What did Gewirtz (1995) find about parental choice?

Gewirtz studied 14 London secondary schools and identified three types of parents: privileged-skilled choosers, disconnected-local choosers and semi-skilled choosers.

Who are privileged-skilled choosers according to Gewirtz?

Privileged-skilled choosers are mainly middle-class parents who understand the education system, research schools, use social networks and can move house to access better schools, giving their children educational advantages.

Who are disconnected-local choosers according to Gewirtz?

Disconnected-local choosers are mainly working-class parents who have limited knowledge of school choices and are restricted by money and distance, meaning they rely on local schools.

Who are semi-skilled choosers according to Gewirtz?

Semi-skilled choosers are working-class parents who want better schools for their children but lack the knowledge and resources to successfully navigate the education market.

What is cream-skimming according to Bartlett (1993)?

Cream-skimming occurs when successful schools select high-achieving pupils, increasing their results and attracting more middle-class students.

What is silt-shifting according to Bartlett (1993)?

Silt-shifting occurs when schools avoid pupils who may lower results, concentrating disadvantaged pupils in poorer-performing schools.

Evaluate marketisation from a New Right perspective.

The New Right argue marketisation increases competition, improves standards and gives parents greater choice. Competition encourages schools to become more efficient and accountable.

Evaluate marketisation from a Marxist perspective.

Marxists argue marketisation increases inequality because middle-class parents have greater resources to access better schools. Ball (1994) argues marketisation mainly benefits middle-class families.

How has educational policy historically affected gender inequality?

In the 19th century, females were largely excluded from higher education. Under the Tripartite System, girls often needed higher marks than boys in the 11+ to gain grammar school places, limiting their access to academic education.

What was the aim of GIST (Girls into Science and Technology)?

GIST was introduced in the 1970s to encourage girls to choose traditionally male-dominated subjects, particularly science and technology, and reduce gender differences in subject choice.

Evaluate policies aimed at reducing gender inequality.

Although policies improved girls’ access to education, feminists argue deeper gender inequalities remain because subject choices are still influenced by stereotypes, teacher expectations and the hidden curriculum.

What were assimilation policies towards ethnic minorities in education?

Assimilation policies during the 1960s and 1970s expected minority ethnic pupils to adopt mainstream British culture. They focused particularly on helping pupils whose first language was not English.

What was the purpose of English as an Additional Language (EAL) support?

EAL provided extra support for pupils who did not speak English fluently, aiming to improve achievement by allowing them to participate fully in education.

How do critics evaluate assimilation policies?

Critics argue assimilation assumes minority ethnic cultures are a problem that needs changing. It ignores structural causes of inequality such as poverty and institutional racism.

Why does underachievement among some African Caribbean pupils challenge assimilation explanations?

Some African Caribbean pupils underachieve despite speaking English fluently, suggesting language difficulties alone cannot explain educational inequality.

What is multicultural education (MCE)?

Multicultural education aims to recognise and value different ethnic cultures within the curriculum. It attempts to increase minority pupils’ self-esteem, create inclusion and improve achievement.

What are examples of multicultural education?

Examples include teaching minority ethnic histories and cultures and celebrating cultural diversity within schools.

How does Maureen Stone (1981) criticise multicultural education?

Stone argues multicultural education is misguided because black pupils do not fail due to low self-esteem. She argues inequality is more likely caused by institutional racism and social class inequality.

How does Critical Race Theory criticise multicultural education?

Critical Race Theory argues multicultural education can be tokenistic because it may celebrate superficial aspects of minority cultures while ignoring deeper racism in education, such as biased assessment, teacher racism and an ethnocentric curriculum.

How does the New Right criticise multicultural education?

The New Right argue multicultural education creates divisions between groups and that education should promote a shared national culture rather than separate identities.

What are social inclusion policies in education?

Social inclusion policies from the late 1990s onwards aimed to raise minority achievement, tackle exclusion and monitor inequality.

How do schools monitor ethnic inequality?

Schools collect data on exam results by ethnicity to identify groups experiencing disadvantage and target support.

How did Race Relations Act reforms affect schools?

Schools gained a legal duty to promote racial equality and prevent discrimination.

What are Saturday schools?

Saturday schools are voluntary organisations, often within black communities, that provide additional educational support to improve achievement.

How does Heidi Safia Mirza (2005) criticise ethnic education policies?

Mirza argues there has been little genuine change because policies take a “soft” approach focusing on culture, behaviour and home background while ignoring structural causes such as poverty, institutional racism and discrimination.

How does Gillborn argue education remains institutionally racist?

Gillborn argues institutional racism continues through an ethnocentric curriculum, biased assessment methods and the disproportionate placement of minority ethnic pupils into lower streams.

What were the main phases of educational policy since 1944?

The main phases were the Tripartite System (1944), comprehensivisation (1965 onwards), marketisation (1988 onwards) and privatisation.

Evaluate the Tripartite System as an educational policy.

The system aimed to create meritocracy through selection by ability, but Marxists argue it reproduced class and gender inequalities by favouring middle-class pupils.

Evaluate comprehensivisation as an educational policy.

Comprehensives aimed to remove inequalities created by selection, but Marxists argue inequality continued through processes such as streaming and labelling.

Evaluate marketisation as an educational policy.

Supporters argue marketisation raises standards through competition and choice. Critics argue it increases inequality because middle-class families benefit most from educational choice.

What is educational privatisation?

Privatisation is when private companies become involved in providing education, for example by running academies or supplying educational services.

How do Marxists evaluate privatisation of education?

Marxists argue privatisation turns education into a source of profit rather than a public service and allows businesses to benefit from education.

How would Functionalists evaluate educational policies?

Functionalists argue policies such as comprehensivisation and marketisation can increase meritocracy by creating opportunities and improving standards.

How would Marxists evaluate educational policies overall?

Marxists argue many policies disguise continuing inequalities because education still reproduces class, ethnic and gender inequalities.

How would feminists evaluate educational policies?

Feminists argue policies have improved female achievement but often fail to challenge deeper patriarchal structures and gender stereotypes.

How would the New Right evaluate educational policies?

The New Right argue marketisation improves education by increasing competition, accountability and parental choice.

How would Critical Race Theory evaluate educational policies?

Critical Race Theory argues many policies fail because they do not address institutional racism within education.