COM 180 midterm (both sophists + reading study guides)

Channel

The means through which the message travels (face-to-face, online)

Noise (psychological, physical, physiological, cultural)

Noise: anything that interferes w/ message transmission/reception

Physiological noise: bodily processes and states (headache, hungry, etc)

Psychological noise: mental or emotional states that impede 

Physical noise: actual sound level in a room (loud music, lawn mower outside)

Cultural noise: differences in peoples’ worldviews, harder to understand one another

Linear model of communication: what is it, & what are the 3 parts

Known as the first theoretical model of communication in 1949 by Shannon & Weaver for Bell Laboratories; communication is seen as a one-way process

Sender (person who is speaking) → Channel (apparatus for carrying the message) → Receiver (person who picks up the message)

Differences between encoding & decoding

Encoding: process of taking an idea/mental image, associating that image w/ words, & speaking those words to convey the message

Decoding: listening to words, thinking about them, & putting them into mental images

Transactional model of communication (draw it)

Communication is seen as ongoing & circular (Barnlund, 2008) process. We are constantly affecting & affected by those we communicate with. Includes encoding & decoding processes, communicator, message, channel, & noise

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5 main types of worldviews (overall framework through which an individual sees, thinks about, & interprets the world & interacts w/ it)

1. Epistemology: way that we acquire knowledge

2. Ontology: our belief system, how we see the nature of reality/what we see as true or false

3. Axiology: our value system, what we see as right or wrong. You can discover this by asking what someone’s goals are, or the qualities in a desired life partner.

4. Cosmology: the way that we see our relationship to the universe & to other people. Plays a role in logistical points as who is allowed to speak, the order of speakers, the amount of time a speaker has to speak, seating arrangements, & front seats

5. Praxeology: preferred method of completing everyday tasks/our approach to solving problems. 

11 speaking competencies

1. Useful topic

2. Engaging intro

3. Clear organization

4. Well-supported ideas

5. Closure in conclusion

6. Clear & vivid language

7. Suitable vocal expression

8. Corresponding nonverbals

9. Adapted to the audience

10. Adept use of visual aids

11. Convincing persuasion

What was significant about the perception of Kennedy vs. Nixon in the debates

Kennedy was more confident & in proper attire, keeping eye contact. Nixon was sweating profusely & not looking at the camera. Those who heard from the radio believed that Nixon had won, but 70% of those watching the televised version believed in Kennedy

Know the differences between the 5 responsible speech goals

1. Promote diversity

2. Use inclusive language

3. Avoid hate speech

4. Raise social awareness

5. Employ respectful free speech

3 types of plagiarism

1. Global plagiarism: transpires when a speaker presents a speech that is not their own work

2. Patchwork plagiarism: occurs when one “patches” together bits & pieces from one or more sources & represents the end result as their own

3. Incremental plagiarism: when most of the speech is the speaker’s original work, but quotes/other info have been used without being cited

When do you cite sources in APA format

When the info isn’t general knowledge

Differences between ethics & morals

Ethics: Conceived as shared principles promoting fairness in social & business interactions; based on the greater good

Morals: Abstract, subjective, personal judgment, sometimes religious-based

Rules to be an ethical listener

Actively interprets shared material & analyzes the content & speaker’s effectiveness

Try to display respect for the speaker: prepare to listen & listen with your whole body

Components of a written & oral speech

Purpose statement

Thesis statement

Transitional statements

Intro

Body (Main points)

Conclusion + call to action

Recognize different organizational styles: chronological, topical, spatial, comparative, problem-solution, causal

Chronological: Main points are delivered according to when they happened; could be traced on a calendar/clock. Ex.) informative speeches, demonstrative speeches, storytelling

Topical: Main points are developed separately & are generally connected together within the intro & conclusion. Crafted around main points & subpoints that are mutually exclusive

Spatial: Arranges main points according to their physical & geographic relationships. Should offer commentary about the placement of the main points as they move through the speech, alerting audience to the location changes

Comparative: You could compare things as a whole, or compare things element by element

Problem-solution: Necessary to share a problem & solution with an audience. Especially useful when speaker wants to convince audience that they should take action in solving a problem. A general solution & solution that is dependent on the speaker’s involvement

Causal: Informs the audience about causes & effects that have already happened; can be particularly effective when the speaker wants to share the relationship between two things. Cause and effect: speaker needs to share the results of a new program, discuss how one act led to another, discuss positive/negative outcomes of taking some action

3 types of signposts

Transitional statements: phrases/sentences that lead form one distinct-but-connected idea to another

Internal previews: lay out what will occur during your speech

Summaries: provide a recap of what has already been said

How important is speaker credibility & how can you earn it

Very important; can be earned through your educational background, personal experiences, research, etc.

Internal vs external credibility

External: By association; use of sources

Internal: Specific actions; attire, eye contact, speaking clearly. Inc. personal experience & knowledge—identify w/ the audience, show that you share experiences

Attention-getting strategies

Tell a story—we are storytellers!

Refer to the occasion

Refer to recent/historical events

Refer to previous speeches

Refer to personal interest

Use startling statistics

Use an analogy

Use a quotation

Ask a question

Use humor

How to conclude well

Speeches aren’t linear, they are circular

Prepare the audience for the end of the speech—use different cues

Present any final appeals

Summarize & close

End w/ a clincher

What is the primacy & recency effect

People tend to better remember info presented first or last. In presenting your appeals to the audience, you can take advantage of the recency effect to increase the likelihood of your audience acting on your appeals.

Top 5 mistakes made by speakers

1. Not dressing right for the occasion

2. Little to no eye contact

3. Swaying/bad movement

4. Different voice levels

5. Stuttering/ghost words

Communication apprehension

Fear of public speaking

3 types of speaking anxieties

1. Trait-anxiety: type of anxiety that is aligned with an individual’s personality; likely to view any chance to express themselves publicly with skepticism & hesitation. 

2. State–anxiety: type of anxiety that is derived from the external situation which individuals find themselves in; may have had negative experiences in public at an early age

3. Scrutiny Fear: Stems from an activity that does not necessarily involve interacting with other people, but is simply the fear of being in a situation where one is being watched/observed, or one perceives him/herself as being watched, while undertaking an activity

Cognitive restructuring: Identify it & know the steps

Internal process through which individuals can deliberately adjust how they perceive an action/experience

Identify objectively what you think → Identify any inconsistencies between perception & reality → Replace destructive thinking w/ supportive thinking

Techniques for building confidence

Visualize success

Avoid gimmicks

Breathe & release

Minimize what you memorize

Practice out loud

Customize your practice

What is “anxiety reappraisal” & how does it help in public speaking

Reappraising your anxiety to rather say that you’re excited through self-talk/mindset to improve on speeches. 

4 methods of delivery for presenting a speech

1. Manuscript style: Precision; esp. in news & the President

2. Memorized style: Committed to memory; recited to audience word-for-word; inc. actors, high school students, & debate teams

3. Impromptu style: Little/no opportunity to prepare, made up on the spot

4. Extemporaneous style: Memorized & impromptu, carefully prepared & rehearsed, but delivered using notes of key words & phrases. Glance at your notes approx. 5% of the time of the speech

What does it mean to check your P.E.R.M

Podium, equipment, room, microphone

Differences regarding vocal aspects of delivery

Articulation

Pronunciation

Accent, dialect, & regionalisms

Vocal quality

Pitch & inflection

Rate of speaking

Pauses vs vocalized pauses (fillers)

Vocal projection

3 types of eye contact styles to avoid

1. Head bobber

2. Balcony gazer

3. The obsessor

Golden rule

Dress appropriately for the situation

Where & why did the need for public speaking originate

Africa savannas: Through speech they could exchange ideas & interpret experiences of the day to learn, settle disputes, tell stories of heroic accomplishment

The Greeks first reflected systematically upon the power of speech & did it both to satisfy their curiosity & meet deep communal & political needs

Who were the sophists & what did they believe (in general)

a group of teachers who offered the first instruction in public speaking; believed in democracy & the importance of truth & knowledge

Specifically, what did each individual contribute to the study of rhetoric

Corax: Outlines & structure; said that speakers’ goals should be based around probability rather than absolute truth. Created 4-part pattern for arrangement of forensic speeches

Gorgias: Skepticism about truth & knowledge, emphasis on verbal artistry

Thrasymachus: Explored “trope”, a powerful figure of speech that can give distinction & originality to the spoken word; emphasized presentation skills

Protagoras: Suggested discipline of debate/persuasion

Isocrates: Most ethical speaker; emphasized liberal arts education. Built the “most influential school of his day”

According to the class readings, what was the motive behind the development of rhetorical theory

The desire to harness the power of the communication symbol so that it might be more productive & useful to society

What was Aristotle’s definition of rhetoric

The ability in each particular case to see the available means of persuasion 

What were the 8 aspects that Aristotle said each speaker should be familiar with? What does this imply according to our text?

1. understand the nature of persuasion

2. understand the culture

3. understand the general means that persuasion can satisfy

4. understand pressures, hopes, fears, dreams that motivate the audience

5. know the extent to which they enjoy the truth, respect, & liking of their audience

6. know all details of cases & possible strategies that might be used for/against different positions on them

7. understand their own strengths & weaknesses

8. understand strengths & limitations of the communication media of their time
   
   This implies the wide range of rhetorical knowledge & that communicators could improve their abilities

What were the 3 main forms of rhetorical expression as classified by Aristotle + give an example of each one

1. forensic speaking: ex. lawyers in court

2. deliberative speaking: ex. town hall meeting

3. ceremonial speaking: ex. public events to show the orator's skill

3 theories of proofs that Aristotle advocated that every speaker/speech should contain

1. Logos (substantive proof/logic)

2. Ethos (personal proof/trustworthiness)

3. Pathos (emotions)

Mythos

personal emotions that tap into group of social emotions, often patriotic emotions connected w/ legends, traditions, & faiths of culture

What did Cicero say was the ideal knowledge that each speaker should have

Those who are broadly conversant with the knowledge & culture of their times as well as adept in the arts of oratory

What were the 5 great arts the Cicero said made up public speaking?  Explain each one

1. Invention: discovery and selection of ideas, themes, & lines of argument for a speech

2. Arrangement: placing these ideas in the most advantageous order

3. Style: expressing these ideas in the most effective language

4. Memory: filing these ideas away in the mind according to a system so that they can be easily recalled

5. Delivery: bringing the ideas to life before audiences

How did Quintilian define a true orator & how is this similar to Aristotle’s concept of ethos?

He describes a true orator as a good man skilled in speaking, which could relate to ethos as an orator’s skill is what gives them credibility that their word is true/believable.

Who was Augustine & how did he use rhetorical theory to contribute to Christianity?

Christian leader who took over pagan ideas in the Middle Ages. These ideas began in an atmosphere of skepticism of divine truth & he worked to spread Christianity

According to Plato, what was the “more noble form” of rhetoric & what did he compare this with

Rhetoric that is informed by philosophy & tries to lead people gradually toward knowledge. He compares it w/ an ideal love relationship in which the lover seeks to lift the beloved toward a better life

What did Plato say was at the heart of public speaking

An understanding of people, of what they know & are capable of knowing, & of how to move them successfully from one state to the other

Acceptance speech: What outline format did he use

topical

Acceptance speech: was there an attention getter? If so, what was it

“Thank you to…” -refer to the occasion, which was the Oscars

Acceptance speech: what was his thesis statement

3 things he needs: someone to look up to, someone to look forward to, & someone to chase

Acceptance speech: outline

1. Intro

2. Something to look up to

   1. God

   2. Charlie quote: “You have a friend”

3. Something to look forward to

   1. Dad

      1. Looking down

      2. Dancing

   2. Mom

      1. Taught respect

   3. Wife & kids

      1. Make them proud

4. Something to chase

   1. Myself in 10 yrs

      1. “Who’s your hero” story

      2. Never catch up

5. Conclusion

Acceptance speech: what did he say when he restated his thesis in the conclusion

“Whatever those 3 things are, to that I say amen”

Acceptance speech: did the speaker have a “call to action”? If so, what was it

Just keep living