Sports Psych - Exam 1 Study Guide

Chapters 1-5

Sport psychology

The scientific study of people and their behaviors in sport and exercise activities AND the practical application of that knowledge.

Sport psychology is a science in which _____

In which the principles of psychology are applied in a sport or exercise setting.

Operational Definition

The specific manner in which a variable will be treated or measured within the context of a particular research investigation.

2 Objectives of Sport Psychology are:

1. Understanding the effects of psychological

factors on physical and motor

performance.

2. Understanding the effects of participation in

physical activity on psychological

development, health, and well-being.

ANY science has four main goals; these are ____

1. Description

2. Explanation

3. Prediction

4. Control

Research Methods & Approaches in Sport Psych are:

• Observation research

• Survey research

• Correlational research

• Experimentation (and Quasi-experiments)

What is the purpose of Observational Research?

The purpose of OR is to observe behavior as it naturally occurs, in its natural environment (aka the real world)

PROBLEM: It is subject to observer bias :(

What is the purpose of Survey/Questionnaire Research?

The purpose of SR is to collect information regarding people’s opinions, beliefs, or reports of their own behaviors.

PROBLEM: Self-report data is subject to social desirability bias!

What is the purpose of Correlational Research?

The purpose of CR is to observe and measure two variables, and identify the nature or strength of the relationship between these two variables.

(There is no control over the situation as behaviors are and measured as they naturally occur)

Positive Correlation

Is a direct relationship

(Ex: the MORE people are watching, the MORE likely a golfer will make the putt)

Negative Correlation

Is a inverse relationship

(Ex: the LESS people are watching, the MORE likely a golfer will make the puff)

Zero Correlation

There is NO relationship.

Independent Variable (IV)

The variable that is manipulated/controlled by the researcher to create different conditions

Dependent Variable (DV)

The variable that is MEASUREd by the research to determine the impact of the manipulated variable (aka to determine the effect).

Quasi-Experiment

Design in which pre-existing groups that already differ on some variable of interest are compared based on some measured attribute.

(EX: Comparing professional weightlifters to casual/amateur weightlifters).

What is a problem with quasi-experiments?

A problem with quasi is its lack of random assignment.

Validity

State of being true

Construct Validity

Whether a variable is operationally defined in a manner that “captures the essence” of the construct under investigation.

Internal Validity

The degree to which we can draw cause and effect conclusions based on the research findings.

External Validity

The degree to which research findings can be generalized beyond the sample and setting that are actually studied.

Sport Psychologist - Research

Inquiry aimed at advancing knowledge and sharing it through professional meetings and journal articles.

Sport Psychologist - Teaching

Teaching university courses in either psychology or exercise and sport science.

Sport Psychologist - Consulting

Working with athletes of all ages and abilities in the fitness industry and in sports medicine and physical therapy.

Clinical sport psychologists are ___

CS psychologists are:

• Licensed psychologists

• Trained to work w/ people with severe emotional disorders

• Trained to help athletes w/ problems such as eating disorders and substance abuse

Educational sport psychology specialists ___

Specialists use:

• The mental coach approach (understand the psychology of human movement)

• Have training in physical education, kinesiology, or exercise and sport science.

• Educate and increase athletes’ and coaches’ awareness of issues such as anxiety management and confidence development

Ethical Standards for Sport and Exercise Psychologists:

1. Competence

2. Integrity

3. Professional and scientific responsibility

4. Respect for people’s rights and dignity

5. Concern for the welfare of others

6. Social responsibility

Historical Periods in Sport and Exercise Psych:

Period 1: Early years (1893-1920)

Period 2: The Griffith era (1921-1938)

Period 3: Preparation for the future (1939-1965)

Period 4: Establishment of academic sport psych (1966-1967)

Period 5: Multidisciplinary science and practice in sport and exercise psych (1978-2000)

Period 6: Contemporary sport and exercise psych (2001-Present)

Present and Future of Sport and Exercise Psych:

1. More people are interested in acquiring training in psych skills + applied work

2. Greater emphasis on counseling and clinical training for sport and exercise psychologists

3. Ethics and competence issues are receiving greater emphasis.

4. Specialization and new subspecialties are developing.

5. Tensions continue to exist (LMAOO)

6. Qualitative research methods are receiving more attention

7. Applied sports psychologists have more work opportunities than ever (limited chance for full time though)

8. Sport psych is gaining increased acceptance and recognition

9. The positive psych movement helps sport and exercise psych expand into new areas like business, music, etc.

10. Embracing the globalization of sport and exercise psych has increased

Personality

The characteristics or a blend of characteristics that make a person unique.

The structure of personality includes:

• Psychological core

• Typical responses

• Role-related behavior

Psychodynamic Approach

Behavior is determined by several unconscious, constantly changing factors (such as the id) that often conflict with one another (such as the superego).

(Emphasis is placed on understanding someone and personality as a whole instead of isolated traits.)

Current Impact, Weakness & Contributions of Psychodynamic Approach:

Impact: Little influence and has not been adopted by MOST contemporary sport psychologists.

Weakness: Focuses almost entirely on internal determinants of behavior, thus giving little attention to the social environment.

Contribution: Increased awareness that unconscious determinants of behavior exist!

Trait Approach

Behavior is determined by relatively stable traits that are fundamental units of personality.

(These traits predispose one to act in a certain way! regardless of the situation)

Big 5 Model of Personality Components (Allen et al., 2013; Gill et al., 2017),

1. Openness to experience

2. Conscientiousness

3. Extroversion

4. Agreeableness

5. Neuroticism

Perfectionism

Most widely studied multidimensional construct that consists of various components, including setting high standards, feeling concern/bad over mistakes, and being highly organized.

Current Impact, Weakness & Contributions of Trait Approach:

Impact: Mixed

Weakness: Knowing traits will not always help predict behavior in particular situations

Contribution: Emphasizes the importance of traits and the measurement of such dispositions.

Situational Approach

Behavior is determined largely by the situation OR environment.

(Situation is a more important determinant of behavior than particular personality traits)

Current Impact, Weakness & Contributions of Situational Approach:

Impact: Has little influence

Weakness: Situation will not always influence individual behavior

Contribution; Emphasizes the importance of the situation

Interactional Approach

Behavior is determined by BOTH the person and situational factors, as well as by their interaction.

(Majority of contemporary sport psychologists favor the interactional approach)

Phenomenological Approach

Behavior is best determined by accounting for situational and personal characteristics.

(A person’s understanding AND interpretation of one’s self and their environment are critical)

Integrative (Biopsychosocial Approach)

Behavior is best determined by understanding biological, psychological, and social factors.

(Parallel to the bio-psychosocial model of medicine AND is a relatively new approach)

Trait

Typical style of behavior

State

The situation’s effect on behavior

(Can change from moment to moment)

Situation-specific trait tests predict behavior ____ accurately than general trait measures do

Predict behavior MORE accurately

DO’s in Personality Testing

• DO: inform participants about the purpose of the personality test and exactly how it will be used

• DO: allow only qualified individuals who have an understanding of testing principles AND measurement error to give personality tests

• DO: compare individuals against their own baseline levels rather than against normative information.

DONT’s in Personality Testing

DON’T: use clinical personality tests that focus on abnormality to study an average population of sport and exercise participants.

DON’T: use personality tests to predict behavior in sport and exercise setting without considering other sources of information.

DON’T: use personality tests to decide who makes a team or program and who doesn’t

Is there a relationship between personality traits/states and sport performance?

Some relationship exists between them.

Have personality profiles that consistently distinguished athletes from non-athletes been found?

No single personality profile has distinguished athletes from non-athletes.

Are there personality differences between male and female athletes at an elite level?

No, there are very few personality differences between male and female athletes.

Do cognitive strategy measures differ between more and less successful athletes?

Yes, these cog strategy measures differ

Kinds of Cognitive Strategies

• Enhancing confidence and practice specific plans to deal with adversity during competitions

• Practicing routines to deal with unusual circumstances and distances before/after competition

• Concentrate wholly on the upcoming performance and block out irrelevant stuff.

• Use several mental rehearsals.

• Focusing on what you can control instead of focusing on one’s competitors

• Develop detailed competition plans

• Learn to regulate arousal and anxiety

Motivation

The direction and intensity of effort

Direction of effort

Refers to whether an individual seeks out, approaches, or is attracted to situations.

Intensity of effort

Refers to how much effort an individual puts forth in a situation.

5 Guidelines for Building Motivation:

1. Both situations and traits motivate people

2. People have multiple motives for involvement. (Understand why people wanna participate in physical activity)

3. Change the environment to enhance motivation

4. Leaders influence motivation directly AND indirectly

5. Use behavior modification to change undesirable participant motives

Achievement Motivation

A person’s orientation to strive for task success, persist in the face of failure, and experience pride in accomplishment (Gill, 2000).

Competitiveness

A disposition to strive for satisfaction when making comparisons with some standard of excellence in the presence of evaluative others (Martens, 1986).

Kinds of Achievement Motivation Influence

• Choice of activities

• Effort to pursue goals

• Intensity of effort

• Persistence in the face of failure

Developing Achievement & Competitiveness Timeline:

Autonomous Competence Stage (Self Comparison) —> Social Comparison —>Integrated Stage (Self & Social Comparison)

6 Implications for Motivation Professional Practice:

1. Recognize the interaction of personal and situational factors influencing achievement behavior

2. Emphasize mastery (task) goals and downplay outcome goals. (This creates a motivational climate)

3. Monitor and alter attributional feedback

4. Monitor and correct inappropriate attributions

5. Determine when competitive goals are appropriate

6. Enhance feelings of competence and control

Arousal

Blend of physiological and psychological activity in a person, varying in intensity along a continuum.

Anxiety

A negative emotional state with feelings of worry, nervousness, and apprehension associated with activation or arousal of the body.

Relationship between Trait and State Anxiety:

Arousal → State Anxiety →which can lead to: Cognitive State Anxiety OR Somatic State Anxiety

What are two ways to measure arousal and anxiety?

It can be measured through physiological signs (heart rate, respiration, etc) and global & multi-dimensional self report scales (CSAI-2, SAS, etc).

Drive Theory

On well-learned skills, an individual’s arousal or state of anxiety increases; and so does performance.

(This theory is used as the basis for social facilitation theory)

Social Facilitation Theory

States that the presence of others, enhance performance on simple and well-learned skills whilst it inhibits performance on complex or unlearned skills.

Multidimensional Anxiety Theory

States that cognitive anxiety is negatively related to performance WHILST somatic anxiety is related to performance in an inverted U pattern.

(Little support for this theory and its predictions)

Reversal Theory

How arousal affects performance depends on an individual’s interpretation of their arousal level. (Pleasant arousal facilitates performance and unpleasant arousal hurts it)

(This theory is considered interesting but it is too early draw conclusions from it)

Arousal is ____

Is multifaceted

Doubtful optimal arousal always occurs at ___

Occurs at midpoint

What are two important factors that impact whether arousal and state anxiety are negative/positive?

Confidence and perception of control impact whether it is negative/positive.

How Arousal Influences Performance

• Arousal increases muscle tension, fatigue, and coordination difficulties.

• Arousal causes changes in attention, concentration, and visual search

  • Such as narrowing of attention, shift to dominant style, and attending to inappropriate cues

Clinical Sport Psychologist DEF

Psychologists with extensive training in psychology to detect and treat individuals with emotional disorders, they also have additional training in sport sciences and sports and exercise psych.

Educational Sport Psychology Specialists DEF

Specialists with extensive training in sport + exercise science, physical education, and kinesiology. They understand the psychology of human movement, specifically as it relates to sport and exercise contexts.

Triplett (1898) - Cyclist/Fishing Experiment

Found: Children reeled in more when they worked in the presence of another child. Similarly, bikers also work better in pairs or groups.

Who founded the modern Olympic Games?

Pierre de Coubertin

Who founded the first laboratory in sport psychology at the University of Illinois?

Coleman Griffith founded it in 1925.

Who founded one of the first sport psychology laboratories in the WORLD?

Robert Schulte founded it in Berlin in 1920.

Who was largely responsible for the sport/exercise psych field’s scientific development?

Franklin Henry.

At UC Berkley, he devoted his career to the study of the psychological aspects of sport and motor skill acquisition. He also trained other educators who went on to become university professors who initiated their own research programs.

Which psychologists created the academic discipline of exercise and sport science?

Warren Johnson AND Arthur Slatter-Hammel

What is Dorothy Hazeltine Yates known for?

She is known for developing the relaxation-set method and being the first woman in the US to practice sport psych and conduct research.

What was one of the first applied books in sports psychology?

The book is called “Psychology of Coaching” and was written by John Lawther

When was the International Society of Sport Psychology (ISSP) founded?

It was founded in 1965

Who was Ferrucio Antonelli?

He was the first president of the ISSP and the first editor of the International Journal of Sport Psychology.

Theory

A set of interrelated facts that present a systematic view of some phenomenon in order to describe, explain, AND predict its future occurrences.

Unbiased Data

Data or facts that speak for themselves and are NOT influenced by the scientist’s’ personal feelings.

Reductionistic

When it becomes too complex to study all the variables of a situation simultaneously, causing information to be compromised or diminished.

Qualitative Data

Data collected through interviews with an individual, focus groups, or observations and is typically nonnumerical in nature.

Quantitative Data

Data that is numerical in nature and involves survey responses (such as rating on a scale of 1-10), objective measures of physical responses (such as heart rate), or field observations (such as counting how often a coach reinforces their players).

Introspection

Examining your thoughts or feelings.

Intuition

Immediate understanding of knowledge in the absence of a conscious, rational process.

RE-AIM Model (Glasgow et al., 1999)

1. Reach: Who the program affects, the degree to which the program affects the target audience

2. Efficacy: Positive and negative outcomes of the program

3. Adoption: Who actually uses the completed program

4. Implementation: Assessment of whether the program is delivered as specified

5. Maintenance: Sustaining the program over time

Scientifically Derived Knowledge: Strengths & Limitations

Strengths:

• Highly reliable

• Systematic and controlled

• Objective and unbiased

Limitations:

• Reductionistic

• Conservative

• Slow to evolve

• Lack of focus on external validity (practicality)

Professional Practice Knowledge: Strengths & Limitations

Strengths:

• Holistic

• Innovative

• Immediate

Limitations:

• Less reliable

• Lack of explanations

• Greater susceptibility to bias

Contextual Intelligence

The ability of individuals to understand and read the contexts in which they work)

(Landers, 1985) - Heartbeats & Accuracy

In this study, biofeedback techniques were used to train elite marksmen to fire between heartbeats to improve accuracy.

Cognitive-Behavioral Orientation

Approach that emphasizes the athlete’s or exerciser’s conditions or thoughts and beliefs. AND this orientation believes that thought is central in determining behavior.

The AASP has developed what to ensure ethics and competence in the field of sport/exercise psych?

They developed a certification program for sport/exercise psych consultants and ethical standards have been developed.

Motor Learning/Motor Control

The acquisition and control of skilled movements as a result of practice.

What personality characteristics are most frequently studied in sport psychology research?

The most commonly researched are trait anxiety, self-efficacy/confidence, perfectionism, social physique anxiety, and depression.