Common Methods of Argument

Analogy

an author draws a parallel between two unrelated (but purportedly similar) situations, cases, or things

Example

an author cites specific cases, observations, or evidence to support a broader conclusion or generalization

Counterexample

an author seeks to weaken or discredit a claim by presenting a specific case in which the claim appears not to hold

Appeal to Authority

an author cites an expert, institution, tradition, moral principle, or other authority as support for a conclusion

Elimination of Alternatives

an author considers multiple possibilities and attempts to rule out all but one

Ad Hominem

an author attacks an opponent’s character, motives, or credibility rather than addressing the substance of the argument

Definition

an author defines, redefines, or clarifies a term in a way that supports a conclusion or challenges another position

Cause and Effect

an author argues that one event, action, or condition causes, contributes to, or explains another

Comparison/Contrast

an author compares two or more things in order to highlight relevant similarities or differences

Appeal to Consequences

an author argues for or against a claim based on its likely outcomes or implications

Statistical Evidence

an author uses numerical data, surveys, studies, or percentages to support a conclusion

Principle Application

an author applies a general rule, principle, or standard to a specific case

Principle Justification

an author argues that a general rule, principle, or standard should be accepted

Prediction

an author draws a conclusion about future events based on current evidence, trends, or assumptions

Explanation

an author proposes an explanation or hypothesis that accounts for a set of facts, observations, or phenomena

Conditional Reasoning

an author uses if-then relationships or logical conditions to support a conclusion

Appeal to Consistency

an author argues that a position should be accepted or rejected because it is or is not consistent with another accepted belief, principle, or action

Dilemma

an author presents a limited set of options and argues that a particular conclusion follows regardless of which option is chosen

Concession and Rebuttal

an author acknowledges a point in favor of an opposing view before explaining why the overall conclusion should still be accepted

Cost-Benefit Analysis

an author weights the advantages and disadvantages of a proposal, action, or policy before reaching a conclusion