Exam 6 Camelids

Choanal Atresia

• congenital and hereditary diseases

• failure of nares to open during embryogenesis

• inherited condition

• nasal obstruction: partial or complete

• camelids are semi-obligate nasal breathers. complete obstruction leads to death after birth

• partial obstruction results in a lifespan of 5-8 months (due to kidney absence)

• symptoms: open-mouthed breathing, stertor, nostril flaring, difficulty eating, high risk for aspiration penumonia

• nasal fluid test: water flows out when filling the nasal cavity (indicates choanal atresia)

• rubber tube test: tube inserted through the nose dosesnt pass beyond the eye level

• nasal endoscopy: visual examination of nasal passages

• contrast radiography: imaging with contrast to identify obstruciton

• ultrasound: checks for presence of both kidneys

• blood work indicators : elevated BUN and creatinine levels indicated absent kidneys

treatment:

• surgical correction to open the blocked passage, enabling normal airflow and drainage

prognosis:

• typically poor, euthanasia in 90% of cases

Wry face

• Congenital and hereditary disease

• more common in llamas than alpacas

• mild cases cause dental issues, needing dental work 2-3 times annually

• severe deviations often lead to euthanasia due to eating difficulties

Diagnosis:

• palpation of bony deviation

• confirmed with lateral radiographs

Blue-eyed white (BEW) alpacas or lethal white

• Congenital and hereditary disease

• all-white color prized for valuable fiber

• BEW alpacas have two blue eyes a solid white coat, and are deaf

• almost always born to two tuxedo grey parents

• affected animals fail to move with the herd stand still and do not respond to calls

• considered a welfare issue

Diagnosis:

• genetic testing confirms the condition

Ventricular septal defect (VSD)

• congenital and hereditary disease

• small defect: potential for normal lifespan

• large defect:

  • stunted growth

  • poor exercise tolerance

  • murmur may be present

  • eventually signs of heart failure

• very large defect (>1 inch): typically results in death within a minute of birth

• diagnosis can be confirmed by ultrasonography, necropsy

Patent Ductus Arteriosus (PDA)

• closure typically occurs by 2-4 days of age

• essential for long-term survival

• often linked to complex congenital heart issues

clinical findings: - continuous murmur

Diagnosis:

• echocardiography: left to right shunting

• mild left ventricular enlargement

• scant pericardial effusion

treatment:

• surgical closure using an Amplatz canine duct occluder (ACDO)

Joint/bone congenital and hereditary diseases

• polydactyly: 3 or more claws instead of the usual two

  • typically live up to 6-8 months of age

  • develop severe arthritis or face fiddiculty in mobility

  • often euthanized due to welfare concerns

• Carpus valgus

  • successful treatment

  • early intervention with casting or splinting

  • surgical treatment is also an option

Uroenital defects congential and hereditary disease

Females:

• uterus unicornis

  • one horn instead of two

  • can lead to dystocia

• double cervices - fail to conceive, lead to dystocia

• segmental aplasia of vagina/uterus - lead to dystocia

Males:

• all may interfere with breeding

• hypospadia - urethra opening is somewhere other than the tip of the penis

• persistent frenulum

• retained testicles

Hermaphrodites

• true hermaphroditism: presence of both ovarian and testicular tissue

• pseudohermaphroditism: discrepancy between external gentialia and internal reproductive organs

Clinical signs:

• ambiguous gentialia (eg enlarged clitoris, underdeveloped penis)

• infertility

Diagnosis:

• physical exam and external genitalia assessment

• hormonal testing (testosterone, estrogen)

• ultrasound or laparoscopy to identify reproductive organs

Treatment:

• surgical removal of abnormal reproductive organs (gonadectomy)

prognosis:

• poor for reproductive purpose

Immunodeficiency syndromes in Llamas and Alpacas

Classification:

• primary (inherited) immunodeficiency

• secondary (acquired) immunodeficiency: develops due to disease, malnutrition or external stressors

Clinical signs

• chronic or recurrent infections (bacterial, viral, fungal or parasitic)

• weight loss and poor body condition

• growth failure

• poor wound healing

• persistent diarrhea or respiratory infections

Diagnosis:

• clinical history and physical exam: chronic infections, failure to thrive

• hematology and immunology tests:

  • leukopenia

  • decreased immunoglobulin levels (IgG, IgA, or IgM)

  • lymphocyte function tests

  • flow cytometry to assess immune cell populations

• culture and sensitivity testing: identifies pathogens involved in recurrent infections

• genetic testing: identifies hereditary immunodeficiency syndromes

Treatment:

• nutritional support with high-quality feed

• proper hydration (oral or intravenous fluids)

• antibiotic or antifungal therapy: based on culture results

• plasma or whole blood transfusion

prognosis:

• primary immunodeficiency : poor prognosis; affected animals often fail to survive long-term

• secondary immunodeficiency: variable prognosis; depends on the underlying cause and response to treatment

Berserk male syndrome behavioral disorder

• aberrant behavior syndrome, novice handler syndrome

  • increased aggression towards humans: screaming, charging, spitting, biting, and laying on top of people; can be fatal

  • develops in young (llamas (crias) with excessive human attention

  • more common in intact males but not exclusive to them

• prevention: discourage behaviors in young llamas such as

  • nose bumping

  • rearing up

  • wrapping legs around the owners waist

spitting behavioral disorder

• Normal: used for social hierarchy or defense

• Behavioral disorder: excessive spitting at humans signals stress, fear, or poor socialization

• causes: overhandling, competition, fear, pain, or lack of training

• prevention:

  • proper socialization, calm environment, and boundary training

  • remove stressors, use positive reinforcement, behavior modification

• behavior modification / training

  • llama spits when approached during feeding

    • 1) stand at a distance where the llama eats calmly

    • 2) gradually move closer over several days, rewarding calm behavior with treats

    • 3) if the llama shows signs of discomfort (ears back) stop and retreat then try again later

    • 4) over time the llama learns that calm behavior results in rewards reducing the need to spit

Obesity

• common nutritional problem in llamas and alpaca

• causes:

  • high quality forage relative to needs

  • overfeeding of supplements

• effects

  • increased susceptiblity to heat stress

  • metabolic disorders

  • infertilty

  • locomotive problems

• prevention

  • provide exercise

  • regular assessment of body weight or condtion score

  • balance diet to maintain optimal conditon

  • reduce forage intake or quality

    • feed lower qulaity forages exclusively

    • segregate obese animals to prevent food stealing

    • increase stocking density or grazing intensity

    • graze only on mature pastures

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Protein energy malnutrition (PEM)

• insufficient provision of feed (quality and or quantity)

  • causes

    • malnutrition, starvation

    • improper ration formulation

  • risk factors

    • higher nutritional requirements for young, pregnant, and lactating animals

    • environmental conditions especially extreme cold, increase energy needs

      • cold conditions inrease maintenance energy by up to 75%

  • clinical signs

    • poor hair coat, alopecia, ill thrift, low body condition score (BCS)

    • potential hepatic lipidosis in pregnant/lactating females

  • diagnosis: feed analysis - good quality grass should have 8-10% protein

  • treatment: provide protein-rich supplements

  • prevention:

    • ensure adequate nutrition

    • balance the diet

    • avoid overfeeding protein in summer to prevent exacerbating heat stress

    • assess body condition scores reqularly

Vitamin D deficiency

• results in reduced uptake of calcium and phosphorus

In crias:

• born with angular limb deformities, especially carpal valgus

• angular limb deformities may develop by 3 to 4 months of age

• Rickets: shifting leg lameness and joint enlargement, especially in the carpus

In adults:

• lameness, angular limb deformities

• limb fractures, poor growth, surgical implant failure

Diagnosis:

• blood levels normal range 75-200 nmol/l

• dietary analysis: examine calcium to phosphorus ratio in a growing cria (>1.5)

treatment:

• supplements: provide adequate vitamin D in dietary supplements

• injections for winter born crias

  • administer vit A, D and E injections from 2 weeks of age until spring

  • caution: potential for injection site reactions and anaphylaxis

• viamin D3 gel or paste: administer every 2-3 weeks

• caution: excess vit D may lead to dystrophic and renal calcification

Copper deficiency

• Essential roles of copper (Cu): energy metabolism, hemoglobin metabolism, bone, tendon, cartilage, and melanin production

• factors affecting availability

  • absorbed in the small intestine (SI) and stored in the liver

  • beta-carotene aids absorption

  • availability depressed with increased molybdenum, sulfur, iron, zinc, cadmium, selenium, calcium in the diet

• forage differences: lush forages from alkaline soil have lower Cu compared to hays and legumes

Copper deficiency effects:

• Stringy fiber, excess shedding, hair loss

• Rusty haircoat color

• anemia

• depressed immune function, leading to increased respiratory diseases

• infertility

• abnormal growth of bone, connective and tendon tissue, resulting in lameness

• poor growth

Diagnosis: liver copper levels by liver biopsy

treatment and prevention:

• maintain a dietary Cu: Mo ratio of 6 to 10:1

• Cu: Mo ratio of 16:1 or greater is associated with Cu toxicity

Iron Deficiency

Clinical signs:

• poor growth

• chronic weight loss

• diarrhea

• non-regenerative microcytic hypochromic anemia

• decreased hemoglobin levels

treatment:

• poor response to oral supplementation of iron

• parenteral injection of iron dextran:

Selenium deficiency (white muscle disease)

• Cause: forages low in selenium

• clinical signs:

  • muscle weakness (skeletal form)

  • acute death (cardiac form)

  • in adutls: infertility, stillbirths, very weak newborn crias, depressed immunity

• Diagnosis

  • feed analysis

  • blood level of selenium or glutathione peroxidase

• treatment and prevention

  • arl selenium supplements

  • subcutaneous injection of baum selenate (slow release for 12 months)

  • selenium overdosing is toxic

zinc deficiency (Dermatosis)

Clinical signs:

• papules or dry plaques of alopecia

• initial hyperemic lesions may become thick, crack, and bleed

• lesions on ventral abdomen, inner thighs, bridge of the nose

Diagnosis:

• skin biopsy reveals parakeratosis

• blood level of zinc

treatment and prevention

• oral supplements of 1g zinc sulfate daily

• application of skin softeners on affected skin

• systemic antibiotics may be necessary

• prevention invovles ensuring adequate zinc in the diet

Hypocalcemia

• occurs at peak lactation (2-4 weeks post parturition)

• clinical signs and diagnosis:

  • anorexia, sternal recumbency, low body temperature

  • C1 atony and bloat

  • confirmation: serum levels of calcium

• treatment

  • IV calcium borogluconate (100 ml of 20% solution)

  • repeated daily until fully recovery (3-4 days)

Hypomagnesemia

• extremely rare in SACs, with llamas less likely than alpacas

• occurs in spring and autumn/winter

• associated with lush grass (high in potassium interfers with magnesium absorption)

• clinical signs

  • recumbency and convulsions triggered by stress

  • frothing at the mouth, rapid eye movement, increased heart rate

• treatment:

  • MgSO4 20% solution: 100 ml SQ

  • followed by IV solution containing 20% calcium borogluconate, 5% magnesium hypophosphite, and 20% glucose

• prognosis: grave

• prevention: provide magnesium-rich supplements, such as molasses licks containing 5% magnesium or magnesium oxide particles

Hypophosphatemia

Common in Llamas/alpacas:

• grazing on pastures deficient in phosphorus

• excessive dietary calcium or deficiency of vitamin D

Clinical signs:

• generalized lack of calcification (decreased bone density)

• pica (craving for anything containing phosphorus). this could lead to fatal botulism

treatment: sodium phosphate injections daily

prevention: provide phosphorus-rich supplements

Recumbency in SACs

Causes:

• gastrointestinal diseases

  • colic: impaction, or displacement of intestines

  • gastric ulcers

• respiratory diseases

  • pneumonia: severe pneumonia can lead to severe respiratory distress

  • tracheal collapse: difficult breathing results in recumbency

• metabolic diseases: hypocalcemia, hypokalemia, hypophosphatemia, hypomagnesemia, fatty liver

• neurologic diseases: P. tenuis, listeriosis, trauma

• musculoskeletal diseases: septic arthritis, laminitis, osteomelitis, fractures, dislocations, severe muscle damage

• septic diseases: endotoxemia, septicemia, abscesses

Metabolic diseases

Diagnostics for recumbent Llamas

1. clinical exam

2. lab tests: hematology, biotchemistry, urinalysis, cultures

3. imaging: ultrasound, radiography, MRI, CT scans

4. specialized procedures: endoscopy, arthroscopy, cerebrospinal fluid analysis

Consequences of recumbency:

• physical consequences

  • pressure sores: decubitus ulcers, particularly on bony areas like the hips and elbows

  • muscle damage leading to compartmental syndrome

  • muscle atrophy

  • nerve damage

  • joint stiffness

• respiratory complications

  • pneumonia: high risk for aspiration pneumonia

  • decreased lung expansion: leading to decreased respiratory function

• digestive problems

  • gastorintestinal stasis: bloat, constipation

  • colic: pain and discomfort from abdominal distention

  • gastric ulcers: due to distress and anxiety

Treatment of recumbent Llamas

General care:

• repositioning: regularly change the animals position to prevent sores and improve circulation

• padding: use soft bedding or paddig to reduce pressure on bony aeas and prevention sores

Medical treatment:

• IV fluids

• nutritional support: ensure adequate nutrition through high-quality feed or supplement feeding

• pain management: NSAIDs

address underlying causes

• specific treatments: antibiotics for infections, anti-parasitics for infestations, or surgical intervention for physical injuries

• correction of metabolic imbalances

physical therapy and rehabilitation

prognosis of recumbent llamas

• pronsis is influened by various factors including:

  • underlying cause: condition causing recumbency (trauma, metabolic disorder, infection) significantly impacts recovery

  • duration of recumbency: longer recumbency increases risks (pressure sores, muscle atrophy, organ failure)

  • early and appropriate treatment: timely and correct intervention improves recovery chances

  • response to treatment: positive response to therapy indicates better prognosis

  • overall health status pre-existing conditions or poor health worsen outcomes

Hyperlipemia

• elevated levels triglycerides in blood

Causes:

• often triggered by stress, negative energy balance, pregnancy or systemic illness

Clinical signs

• lethargy, anorexia, weakness

• neurological signs (depression, seizures

• colic, diarrhea, or constipation

Diagnosis:

• bloodwork: elevated triglycerides, cholesterol, and lipemia (milky plasma)

• may also show elevated liver enzymes

treatment:

• address underlying cause (stress, illness)

• provide nutritional support (high-energy, low fat diet)

• IV fluids adn medications to reduce lipid levels (isulin, heparin)

• IV fluids with 0.9% saline and 5% glucose

• antigastric ulcer medications

Prognosis - guarded to poor especially if untreated or advanced

complications - if not treated hepatic lipidosis develops. hepatic lipidosis can be fatal if not addressed promptly

Hepatic lipidosis

• Excessive fat accumulation in the liver leading to liver dysfunction

Causes:

• often secondary to hyperlipemia, starvation, or anorexia

• negative energy balance during late pregnancy. pregnancy toxemia (ketoacidosis)

Clinical signs:

• similar to hyperlipemia (lethargy, anorexia, weakness)

• jaundice (yellowing of mucous membranes)

• neurological signs due to liver failure (hepatic encephalopathy)

Diagnosis:

• bloodwork: elevated liver enzymes (AST, GGT) bilirubin, and bile acids

• ultrasound: enlarged, hyperechoic liver

• liver biopsy: confirms fat accumulation in liver cells

treatment:

• dietay management provide a high quality energy rich diet hand feed if necessary

• energy supplements: administer high energy drenches; several commericial products are avialble. propylene glycol is not advised (toxic)

• gastric ulcer prevention

prognosis - poor to guarded especially if liver damage is severe. fatal if not recognized and treated aggressively within 2448 hours

Hyperglycemia, Hyperosmolarity, and insulin resistance of Llamas and alpacas

• common in very sick camelids

• blood glucose levels can reach up to 500 mg/dl

• can be stress related and transient requiring no treatment if it resolves quickly

• persistent hyperglycemia may require insulin therapy

Clinical signs:

• increased uriation

• fine muscle tremors

• severe cases seizures and coma

• concurrent hypernatremia may be present

treatment:

• regular insulin

Polioencephalomalacia (vitamin B1 deficiency)

• Acute progressive neurological disease

• presents with recumbency, muscle fasciculations, convulsions, opisthotones, blindness with intact pupillary light reflex (PLR)

Diagnosis:

• thiamine blood level

• fluorescence of brain tissues (cerebral cortex) on ultraviolet exposure

• histology reveals perineuronal vacuolation

treatment

• thiamine injections: 8-10 mg/kg body weight intramuscularly every 4 hours for 4 treatments

• fluid support oral or IV fluids

• nutritional support administer energy-rich drenches

Urolithiasis

• Male llamas and alpacas are prone to urethral blockage due to their genito-urinary anatomy

• types of Uroliths:

  • Phosphatic (struvite, apatite, amorphous magnesium calcium phosphate)

    • caused by high-grain diets and low calcium to phosphorus ratio

  • calcium salts: less common but can occur

  • silica and oxalates: associated with certain forages or diets

• clinical signs:

  • complete blockage:

    • bladder rupture: abdominal distention, pain, and shock

    • inability to urinate, severe discomfort and systemic illness

  • incomplete blockage

    • stranguria (difficulty urinating)

    • prolonged urination posture

    • urine dribbling or blood-tinged urine

    • depression, tooth grinding (sign of pain)

• diagnosis:

  • physical exam: palpation of a distended bladder or abdominal pain

  • imaging: ultrasound or radiography to identify uroliths

  • urinalysis: blood, crystals, or signs of infection

Lymphosarcoma

• typically seen in animals aged 4-5 years old

  • often seen in the terminal stage due to a lack of clear signs early on

  • presents with lethargy, lymphadenopathy, several months of weight loss and reduced appetite

  • progresses to terminal recumbency and death

• diagnostic indicators

  • fine needle aspiration or biopsy: cytology and histopathology confirm neopalstic cells

  • in most cases, ascites on abdominal ultrasound

  • rare shedding of cells in abodminal fluid

  • elevated hepatic enzymes if invasion into the liver occurs

• prognosis generally a grave prognosis

Liver abscess

• Hepatic abscesses much more common than tumors

• associated with rumenitis

• laboratory findings:

  • elevated white blood cell count (WBC) and fibrinogen

  • hepatic enzymes may not be markedly elevated

• diagnostic confirmation: confirmation by U/S, necropsy

• treatment

  • prolonged antibiotic therapy (1 month or more)

  • use of NSAIDs

  • hand feed or use energy rich drenches

Pericarditis and epicarditis

Etiology:

• Idiopathic (most common)

• secondary to septic events, dilated cardiomyopathy pleuropneumonia, pulmonary hypertension or congenital heart disease

• hypoproteinemia (associated with mild effusion)

Clinical signs:

• lethargy

• tachycardia

• muffled heart sounds

• tachypnea

• cardiac tamponade (in severe cases)

treatment:

• pericardiocentesis

• systemic antibiotics and anti-inflammatory drugs

• supportive care (IV fluids)

prognosis

• favorable with prompt intervention

• idiopathic cases may resolve without recurrence

• secondary cases depend on underlying disease

Parelaphostrongylus tenuis (P. tenuis)

• Meningeal worm (white-tailed deer parasite)

  • white-tailed deer is the normal host

• requires a snail in the life cycle

• SACs and ruminants become aberrant hosts by ingestin the larvae

• larvae migrate through the body penetrating the spinal cord and entering the brain

Clinical signs: Generalized ataxia, convulsions, coma and death

Diagnosis:

• cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) analysis reveals high protein

• necropsy shows L4 or L5 larvae in spinal cord or brain tissue

prognosis: poor prognosis

treatment:

• supportive care

• anti-inflammatory drugs: phenylbutazone

• anthelmintics (dewormers)

  • invermectin

  • fenbendazole

prevention:

• deer control remove any deer from the area maintain good fences

• ivermectin injections administer monthly ivermectin injections starting at 1 month of age

• snail control implement measures to control snail populations

internal parasitism

• Gastrointestinal Nematodes: Haemonchus contortus, Trichostrongylus, Nematodirus

• Lungworms: Dictyocaulus viviparus, D. filaria

• tapeworms; trichuris moniezia

• flukes: fasciola hepatica

Clinical signs:

• anemia, poor growth

• rough hair coat

• diarrhea, with dog-formed feces (tubular or clumped)

treatment guidelines

• targeted deworming: deworm only those that need treatment

  • base treatment on clinical signs, FAMACHA score 3+ (indicating the need for deworming) and egg count

prevention measures:

• pasture management

• hygiene practives

• dewormig: maintain a routine deworming and fecal schedule

  • administer fenbendazole drench every 3 to 4 months

  • provide ivermectin or doramectin injections once every month

Coccidiosis

• symptoms: diarrhea, weight loss, poor growth

• diagnosis: fecal smears

• treatment: treat only if a high oocyst count is identified on fecal examination or if diarrhea is present

• treatment options

  • amprolium

  • sulfadimethoxine

  • ponazuril

  • Decoquinate (added to feed to reduce oocyst production)

• preventive measures

  • daily cleaning: scrape pens and remove soiled or wet bedding every day

Coccidiosis - Eimeria macusaniensis

• causes significant and permanent intestinal damage

• diagnosis: fecal smears

• affects mostly immunocompromised, young, or old animals

• clinical signs:

  • lethargy, anorexia, weight loss, sudden death (hemorrhagic diarrhea)

  • stunting or ill thrift with chronic diarrhea

• treatment:

  • treat if suspected even if no oocysts are found in feces

    • amprolium

    • sulfadimethoxine

    • ponazuril

    • decoquinate (added to feed to reduce oocyst production)

Mange (Sarcoptes, Psorotptes, Chorioptes, Demodex)

• foot mites (Chorioptes) is most common

• Clinical signs:

  • pruritus, alopecia, hyperkeratosis, scaling

  • resembles Zinc deficiency (not itchy)

• Diagnosis: Deep scrapings and skin biopsy

• treatments:

  • subcutaneous injections of eprinomectin or moxidectin

  • local treatment with Amitraz or diazinon

  • repeated treatment every 2 weeks for 2 to 4 treatments to eliminate newly hatched mites

  • oral therapy is not effective

  • for Chorioptes and refractory Sarcoptes:

    • higher doses of moxidectin by subcutaneous injections every 2 weeks

    • local therapy with amitraz or diazinon

Munge in Llamas and Alpacas

• is a severe dermaittis in camelids

Clinical signs:

• heavy adherent hyperkeratotic crust

• primarily affects paranasal and perioral regions

• may extend to the bridge of the nose, periocular, and periaural areas

• inflammatory lesions may wax and wane

Treatment: -treat secondary bacterial infections

• some animals do not respond to treatment

• may be associated with juvenile llama immune deficiency syndrome

• further immune system evaluation and medical work up recommended

LIce

Transmission:

• spread through close body contact

Clinical signs:

• heavy infestation causes debilitation

• lesions are common at the base of the tail, sides of thorax and abdomen, upper limbs, and flank

treatment

• topical dust or pour on

• Ivermectin subcutaenously (not effective for bting lice)

Ticks

• SACs are ssuceptible to tick paralysis

• ticks can cause inner ear infections, resulting in Horner syndrome

• vector for anaplasma, hemoplasma

• treatment:

  • topical dust or pour on

  • Ivermectin subcutaneously

Heat Stress

• serious problem in hot summer season

• factors affecting thermoregulation:

  • thermoregulation fails if:

    • environmental air is stagnant

    • ambient temperature is higher or the same as body temperature

    • ambient humidity is high enough to prevent evaporation

    • obesity

    • dehydration

• clinical signs:

  • sternal recumbency (cushing)

  • depression

  • dehydration

  • panting with respiratory rate > 30

  • tachycardia with heart rate >100

  • frothing at the mouth

  • drooping lower lip

  • lateral recumbency, collapse and death

Heat stress treatment and recovery

• cool the animal down: hose down + fan

• rehydrate if dehydrated (offer cool water, not ice water, to prevent shock)

• orogastric intubation with cold water with electrolytes

• severe cases or recumbent animals: IV cool fluids with electrolytes

• NSAIDs

• B vitamins to improve appetite, B1 prevents cerebro-cortico necrosis

• antibiotics for recument animals with comproised immune systems

• grave prognosis if temperature rises to 108 F

during recovery

• small amounts of feed multiple times dialy

• add selenium and vitamin E and vit C to the diet to help protect the heart and vasculature

• add vitamine A and D to help absorb minerals

prevention:

• provide shade, pond

• avoid fescue with endophyte acremonium species

• do not feed too much protein

• appropriate and timely shearing

• avoid breeding during the heat of the day

• avoid moving animals from cold climates to hotter climates

Enterotoxeias

Enterotoxemia type C

• produce alpha and beta exotoxins

• hemorrhagic eneteritis, hemorrhagic diarrhea

• abdominal cramps, lying on one side of the body

• sudden death

• blood stained intestinal contents

Enterotoxemia type D

• produce alpha and epsilon exotoxins

• sudden death

• CNS signs (convuslions, circling, prostration with opisthotonos, paddling and coma)

Diagnosis: Detection of toxins in intestine contents by PCR

treatment:

• IV fluids

• Antisera

• Antibiotics

prevention:

• hygien

• consistent nutritional management

• vaccination

Tetanus

• wound infection (castration) with Clostridium tetani

• produces neurotoxins affecting the central nervous system

Clinical signs:

• stiff gait and difficulty moving

• msucle rigidity, including lockjaw

• hyperresponsiveness to stimuli

• recumbency adn eventual respiratory failure

Diagnosis: based on clinical signs and history of trauma or surgical procedures

treatment:

• antitoxin

• antibiotics: penicillin

• muscle relaxants: control muscle spasms (diazepam)

• wound care: clean and debride any wounds

• supportive care: IV fluids and nutritional support

prevention:

• regular vac with tetanus toxoid

• proper hygiene surgical and obstetrical procedures

Dental Issues

Overgrown Incisors:

• affects forage prehension, making it difficult for camelids to eat properly

• require regular inspection and trimming if needed

Tooth root abscesses

• most common in molars

• clinical signs:

  • focal swelling over the affected tooth (often mandibular > maxillary)

  • possible fistulous tract with purulent drainage

  • reluctance to eat, abnormal chewing behavior

  • unilateral nasal discharge, hypersalivation

  • weight loss pain

Tooth root abscesses in Llamas and alpacas

Diagnosis:

• physical exam: detects swelling and pain

• radiography: confirms diagnosis, assesses bone damage

• culture and sensitivity: identifies bacterial cause

treatment options: systemic antibiotics such as Metronidazole + penicillin or Amoxicillin clavulante

-complications

• bone sequestra damage to adjacent teeth

• jaw fracture aspiration pneumonia

Stomatitis

Etiology:

• trauma: oral injuris from grass awns (barley, foxtail, spear grass) or chemical irritants (caustic agents)

• foreign material: hairy caterpillars on plants can cause irritation

Clinical signs:

• ptyalism (excessive drooling)

• dysphagia (difficulty swallowing)

• resistance to oral examination

Diagnosis:

• oral examination: requires sedation, mouth speculum and light source

• ulcer evaluation: check for embedded foreign material

treatment and management:

• remove foreign material if present

• modify diet (change hay quality, remove from affected pasture)

Ddx:

• Actinobacillosis

• Bovine viral diarrhea

• Malignant catarrhal fever

Megaesophagus in Llamas and Alpacas

Etiology:

• no consistent causes idetified

• no age or sex predilection

clinical signs

• chronic weight loss

• postprandial regurgitation

• hypersalivation, excessive frothing while eating

Diagnosis: Barium contrast radiography or fluoroscopy confirms esophageal dilation

treatment and management dietary modifications:

• soft, easily swallowed feed

• elevated feeding platforms

prognosis: fair to poor some animals maintain condition long-term while others continue to decline

carbohydrate overload (acidosis or grain poisoning)

• overconsumption, sudden change to grain, or sweet feed

• clinical signs:

  • depressed, dehydration, bloating (left abdomen), ataxic adn staggery, tender gait; sawhorse stance, recumbent, death, diarrhea, surviors may develop abscesses in the liver and other organs, leading to long-term poor performance

• Ddx: - polioencephalomalacia: check B1 level

• treatment:

  • in early cases

    • administer IV fluids and electrolytes

    • Do C1 surgery to evacuate

  • thiamine injections

  • recumbent animals

    • poor prognosis

    • administer IV fluids and electrolytes

  • antibiotics

  • NSAIDs

• prevention: only feed grains/pellets designed specifically for camelids and use them in moderation

Stomach Atony

• Common

• affects primarily C1-C2

• causes

  • grain overload, feed changes, prolonged antibiotic therapy, spoiled feed, gastric ulcers, obstruction

• clinical signs

  • reduced or no food consumption, weight loss, depression, diagnosis: absence of C1 contractions

  • treatment:

    • address primary cause

    • supportive care

    • transfaunation

Gastric Ulcers

• stomach compartment 3 (Equivalent to the monogastric stomach) is most commonly affected

  • Etiology: stress factors

    • environmental changes

    • social changes

    • disease

    • hospiralizaiton

  • clinical signs:

    • Bruxism (teeth grinding)

    • ptyalism

    • anorexia

    • regurgtation

    • black feces

    • recumbency

  • Diagnosis:

    • clinical signs

    • history of stress

    • U/S thickening and edema of C3 wall

  • treatment

    • remove stressor

    • gastric protectants (sucralfate)

    • H2 receptor antagonist (ranitidine, cimetidine, famotidine)

    • proton pump inhibitors (pantoprazole)

Regurgitation and Emesis

Regurgitation:

• may be voluntary - defense

• esophageal or laryngophrayngela stimulation

• anesthesia and recumbency

emesis:

• due to the elongated soft palate it is very common for ingesta to pass into the nasal cavity - rhinitis, obstruction, aspiration pneumonia

• causes C1 overload, gastritis, diaphragmatic hernia, partial esophageal obstruction, poisonous plant ingestion

Johne’s Disease (Paratuberculosis)

• Mycobacterium avium subsp paratuberculosis infection

  • chronic disease with infection starting early in age; clinical signs appear at an old age

  • organism shed in feces even before clinical signs

  • protein-losing enteropathy: chronic weight loss, ventral edema, intermittent diarrhea

• diagnosis:

  • fecal culture

  • fecal PCR

• treatment: no specific treatment

• preventoin and control:

  • cull or relocate affected animals

  • remove crais from positive moms; hand-feed them or orphan them

  • purchase colostrum or milk replacer only from confirmed negative farms

  • quarantine and test all new animals

Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis

• Caseous Lymphadenitis:

  • transmission: direct contact with wounds

  • abscesses in the lymph nodes: retropharyngeal, axillary or popliteal nodes; affected lymph nodes are cool to touch

• Diagnosis

  • culture of abscessed material

  • serology

• treatment

  • surgical removal of abscesses

  • antibiotics are recommended

• prevention: cull affected animals. test emaciated animals and cull positives

Diarrhea

• Neonatal diarrhea

  • infectious causes: Rotavirus, coronavirus, cryptosporidia, E. coli

  • nutritional diarrhea

    • abundant dam milk production

    • sudden change in milk replacer

    • errors in mixing milk replacer or orphans

• Diarrhea in young and older animals: Eimeria spp, Salmonella spp, Eosinophilic enteritis, Mycobacterium paratuberculosis, intestinal nematodes

  • Diagnosis: fecal cultures, fecal smears, PCR, ELISA, EM

Oral administration for fluid therapy

• suitable for mild dehydration

• administered through orogastric intubation

• stressful and not recommended for severe cases

IV administration and intraosseous

IV:

• preferred for severe dehydration, ongoing therapy and shock

• options: constant rate infusion (CRI) or boluses every 2-4 hours

• caution with potassium and calcium supplementation

Intraosseous in neonates if cant get catheter in

fluid solutions

• balanced crystalloid solutions (lactated ringers, plasma lyte)

  • often administerd to patients with metabolic acidosis

• normal saline as the main fluid component may cause hyperchloremic metabolic acidosis, inflammation, hypotension, acute kidney injury and death

  • often administered to patients with metabolic alkalosis

Maintenance fluid plan

• (L) = 50mL/kg/day for adults, 80mL/kg/day for neonates

Replacement fluid volume

• (L) = body weight (kg) x % dehydration

example:

150kg llama 10% dehdyrated

150kg x 10% = 15L

Mycoplasma haemolamae (Hemoplasmas)

• Bacteria of the family Rickettsiae

• unique to SACs

• transmitted by ticks

• intracellular causing extravascular hemolysis

Clinical signs:

• fever, anemia, depression, icterus, infetility, edema, poor growth

Diagnosis:

• Blood smear, PCR, ELISA

treatment:

• oxytetracycline injections

• blood transfusion if PCV is less than 15%

Pneumonia in Llamas and Alpacas

• commonly caused by bacterial infections

  • Pasteurella, Mannheimia, Haemophilus, Mycoplasma

• Viral infections

  • BHV-1, adenovirus, coronavirus)

• aspiration of foreign material

• clinical signs:

  • depression, anorexia, fever, cough, nasal discharge, tachypnea

• Diagnosis

  • based on clinical signs, physical exam findings (lung auscultation)

  • rads, U/S, and culture of respiratory samples (nasal swab, BAL)

• treatment

  • antibiotics (based on culture and sensitivity). oxytetracycline or Florfnicol

    • supportive care

    • oxygen therapy for severe cases

• prognosis: good with prompt treatment; poor if untreated, particularly in severe or chornic cases leading to complications like pleural effusion or lung abscesses

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)

• chronic inflammation due to dust, mold and allergens in poorly ventilated environments

Clinical signs:

• chronic cough, nasal discharge, labored breathing

• wheezing, exercise intolerance, weight loss

Diagnosis:

• based on CS, history, physical exam

• rads, bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL), endoscopy for confirmation

treatment:

• environmental management (immprove ventilation)

• bronchodilators, coticosteroids, mucolytics

• low-dust diet, restricted exercise dung flare ups

prognosis:

• chronic with varialbe severity, early management improves quality of life, but progressive cases may cause irreversible damage

Ringworm

• Fungal infection - Trichophyton verrucosumis:

  • spread via contact with spores

  • lesions: crusty, circular plaques (2-3 cm diameter) on head, face, neck, body, and limbs

• Diangosis: culture, direct microscopic examination of hairor skin scale

• treatment:

  • usually self-limiting unless immunosuppressed

  • Povidone iodine topical application (1:4 solution)

    • Thiabendazole ointment (2%-4%, q3d)

Contagious Ecthyma (Orf)

• self-limiting (3-4) weeks)

• highly contagious

• lesions olips, mouth, teats: raised erythremic areas, papules, or lesions with crust

• diagnosis: PCR

• zoonotic

• treatment: no specific treatment. supportive treatment

• prevention:

  • vaccination by scarification

  • autogenous vaccine

Rabies

• aggressive or furious syndrome: vocalization and per acute death

• Paralytic (Dumb) syndrome:

  • Tenesmus

  • ptyalism

  • bloat, pruritus, muscle tremors, aimless running, recumbency

• diagnosis: Euthanize the animal and contact public health officials to coordinate testing at an approved rabies laboratory

  • histopathology of brain tissue: Negri bodies in neurons of the hippocampus (and other brain locations)

  • Fluorescent antibody staining

• prevention: killed rabies vaccine, annually

Herpesvirus (EHV-1)

Clinical signs:

• blindness with nonresponsive pupils

• recumbency

Diagnosis: serology

Necropsy findings:

• retinal detachment

• retinitis

• optic nerve degeneration

treatment

• antivirals

• interferon

• steroids

• IV fluids

prevention: vaccination with equine vaccine

West Nile Virus

• transmitted by flies

• neurologic signs:

  • ataxia

  • sudden blindness

  • paralysis

  • head tremors

• diagnosis: serology, PCR

• treatment: supportive care (50% survival)

• prevention

  • equine vaccines used: 3 injections at 3 week intervals (may cause injection site swellings and anaphylaxis)

  • mosquito control

Eastern equine encephaltiis

• transmitted by mosquitoes

Clinical signs:

• acute CNS disease

• head twitching

• seizures

• cranial nerve defects

• most commonly sudden death

Diagnosis:

• difficult antemortem (increased protein concentration in CSF)

• necropsy: PCR, immunohistochemistry on nervous sytem tissue

treatment: no specific treatment

prevention: vaccination with equine vaccines

BVD

• pestivirus infection: Noncytopathic BVDV 1b is most common

• clinical signs (acute infection):

  • ill thft, lethargy, weight loss, nasal discharge, pneumonia, abortion, stillbirth, and weak premature neonates, persistently infected (PI) crias

• persistently infected (PI) crias:

  • important sources of transmission, clinical signs in PI crais:

    • death due to acute or chronic mucosal disease

    • anemia

    • leukopenia

    • pneumonia

    • death

• Diagnosis

  • PCR on whole blood

  • VI on blood or tissues

  • serology

  • herd screening: PCR on pooled blood samples

• prevention:

  • vaccination using killed BVDV cattle vac

  • identify PI animals and cull them

  • maintain a closed herd

  • repeat screening

  • improve hygiene

Foot and mouth disease (FMD)

Clinical signs:

• fever as high as 104 F

• anorexia

• vesicles on lips, gums, tongue, feet, teats

transmission:

• aerosol

• direct contact

• contaminated water or feed

diagnosis:

• rule out vesicular stomatitis and blue tongue

Tuberculosis (TB)

• Mycobacterium bovis (Bovine Tuberculosis):

• transmission: inhalation

• symptoms:

  • chronic weight loss and poor body condition

  • chronic coughing or respiratory distress

  • lethargy and decreased appetite

  • enlarged lymph nodes

• diagnosis: tuberculin skin testing

• treatment

  • antibiotics long term

  • supportive care

  • success of treatment is often poor

• prevention:

  • biosecurity: regular testing and monitoring of animals

  • vaccination: in areas where TB is endemic, bacillus calmette-guerin (BCG) vaccine may be considered

  • feed management: avoid feeding potentially contaminated feeds

  • carcass disposal: properly dispose carcasses and other animal products to prevent the spread of the disease

Pinkeye

• common during summer months and fly season

• viral or bacterial infections, often Moraxella like microorganisms

• clinical signs:

  • painful eyes

  • yellowish eye discharge

  • mild to moderate chemosis (swelling)

  • blepharospasm (involuntary eye closure)

  • conjunctivities

  • epiphora (excessive tearing)

  • corneal opacity and ulceration

  • blindness

• diagnosis:

  • clinical signs observation

  • ophthalmic swab for gram stain culture

• treatment:

  • antibiotic injections

  • topical antibiotic ointments

  • NSAIDs for pain relief

• prevention

  • autogenous vaccine

  • control flies to reduce the risk of infection

Otitis Externa

causes:

• spinose ear tick (Otobius megnini)

• grass awns causing epithelial damage

signs:

• head shaking, scratching ears, head tilt, abnormal pinna positioning, hyperemic and ulcerated epithelial surface

• exudation from the ear canal foul odor

diagnosis:

• cultured samples may be non-diagnostic

treatment:

• clean ear canal 1-2 times daily using dilute chlorhexidine

• apply broad-spectrum antibiotic and anti-fungal otic ointment

• small animal preparations or intramammary infusions for lactating cows can be used

Otitis media and interna

causes:

• direct extension from external ear canal

• ascending infection from eustachian tube

• grass awns penetrating tympanic membrane

• listeria monocytogenes in severe cases

clinical signs:

• head tilt, ear droop, flaccid lower lip, collapsed nasal opening with deviation

• facial nerve paralysis with decreased facial sensation, loss of reflexes

• horners syndrome: ptosis, miosis, and protrusion of nictitating membrane

• Disoreintation, ataxia, circling

diagnosis:

• rads and CT scans for extent and damage

treatment:

• antibiotic injections

  • procaine penicillin G

  • enrofloxacin

  • ceftiofur hydrochloride

  • ampicillin

• surgical options

  • lateral bulla osteotomy and ear canal ablation

Chronic wasting disease

• A prion disease primarily affecting cervids (deer, elk and moose)

• clinical signs: progressive weight loss, lethargy, abnormal behvior, tremors, ataxia, and difficulty swallowing

• diagnosis: definitive diagnosis is made post-mortem via histopathology of brain tissue

• treatment: no effective treatment exists

• prognosis: poor; CWD is fatal and there is no known cure

Rye grass staggers

• Etiology: caused by Neotyphodium loii fungus in infected ryegrass

• clinical signs: muscle tremors, ataxia, stiffness, difficulty walking (worsens with excitement)

• Diagnosis: based on clinical signs and pasture history, confirmed by detecting toxins in ryegrass

• treatment:

  • remove from contaminated pasture

  • supportive care, anti-inflammatory drugs, and muscle relaxants

• prognosis:

  • good with early removal; chronic exposure may cause lasting damage or death

Endometritis

• primary cause of reproductive failure in camelids

• common pathogens:

  • Escherichia coli

  • Streptococcus zooepidemicus

• Clinical signs:

  • repeat breeding, early embryonic death, or abortion

  • abnormal vaginal discharge

  • urterine wall thickening (detected via ultrasound)

• diagnosis: clinical signs, ultrasound and bacterial culture

• treatment:

  • uterine lavage: warm isotonic or a weak antiseptic solution (dilute povidone-iodine)

  • intrauterine antibiotics: infused in saline adn delivered directly into the uterus

    • penicillin K

    • gentamicin sulfate

    • ticarcillin

    • amikacin sulfate

    • ceftiofur sodium

  • systemic antibiotics for 5-7 days

    • ceftiofur sodium

    • penicillin

    • enrofloxacin

  • prostaglandins: to promote uterine contraction and clearance of infection

• prognosis: pregnacy rates after treatment range from 30% to 60%

• prevention:

  • utilitze minimum contamination breeding technique (MCBT)

    • ultrasound monitoring of ovaian activity

    • breeding only once when the follicle is mature

    • intrauterine antibiotic infusion 24 hours after mating

  • hygiene: stict hygiene practices during breeding and parturition

Abortion

• Causes: BVDV, campylobacteriosis, anaplasmosis, coccidiomycosis, toxoplasmosis, and neosporosis

• diagnostic approach for abortion:

  • History, clinical observations, and collection of appropriate samples, including placental and fetal tissues

  • fetal necropsy: whole ftuses with placenta should be sent to a diagnostic lab for necropsy

Reproductive disorders in male camelids

• Preputial swelling: causes include inflammation, trauma

• paraphimosis: often due to dirt or hair rings; leads to balanoposthitis and necrosis

• scrotal trauma: common from male bites. requires urgent surgical intervention

• hydrocele: fluid accumulation caused by heat stress. Diagnosed via ultrasonography

• testicular degeneration: caused by heat stress, trauma or systemic diseases; affects semen quality

acute mastitis in camelids

• occur shortly after paturition

clinical signs:

• watery or bloody mammary secretions, fever, anorexia, udder swelling, and pain

treatment:

• systemic antibiotics: Ceftiofur, penicillin G, or enrofloxacin

• intramammary antibiotics: penicillin, cephalosporins, or amoxicillin

• anti-inflammatory therapy

• mammary gland stripping

• supportive care in toxic mastitis cases

Subclinical mastitis

• characterized by high cell counts (CMT)

• Strep. agalactae and S. aureus are common isolates

• diagnosis: culture, CMT, SCC

• treatment: intramammary antibiotics such as penicillin, cephalosporins, or amoxicillin

• prevention: proper hygiene, regular udder health checks

musculoskeletal diseases in llamas and alpacas

Angular limb deformities:

• congenital or acquired

• causes: nutritional imbalances and trauma

• diagnosis: rads

• treatment: splints, corrective trimming, or surgery

Capture myopathy:

• stress-induced muscle damage from prolonged straint

• signs: weakness, muscle stiffness, myoglobinuria

• treatment: supportive care (fluids, anti-inflammatories)

• prognosis guarded

claw defects:

• overgrowth, cracks

• treatment: regular trimming

Ulcerative pododermatitis

• Etiology: trauma, poor hygiene, or wet, unsanitary conditons

• clincial signs: lameness, swelling, heat in the affected feet, and visible ulcers or sores on the pads

• treatment:

  • clean the affected area, debride necrotic tissue, and provide topical or systemic antibiotics

  • supportive care includes anti-inflammatory drugs and foot care (trimming)

• prognosis:

  • good with early intervention

  • chronic or severe cases may require prolonged treatment or surgical intervention

• prevention: regular foot care and environmental management are crucial for prevention

Geriatric Diseases

Dental disease:

• involves periodontal issues, tooth loss, and malocclusion

• regular dental check ups are required

Arthritis:

• presents with joint pain, stiffness, adn reduced mobility

• management focuses on pain relief

cataracts:

• leads to impaired vision and difficulties in navigation

• regular eye checkups are crucial and surgical intervention may be necessary

skin tumors:

• tumors can be benign or malignant. surgical removal is required

cardiac disease:

• symptoms include fatigue, exercise intolerance, and respiratory distress

• regular cardiovascular monitoring is important for early detection

neurological disorders:

• can involve spinal cord compression or degeneration

metabolic disorders:

• include diabetes or hypothyroidism

• proper management involves dietary adjustments and medications

castration

indications:

• cohabitation between males

• genetic control

• reduce aggression

some suggest waiting until 18 to 24 months

early castration may impact bone growth potentially causing joint issues

preoperative:

• tetanus toxoid vac

• penicllin G injection

• 12 hour fasting

reastraint and analgesia:

• recumbent position under sedation

• tratesticular and incisional line blocks

  • lidocaine 2ml in each testicle, subC along incision line

removal:

• each testicle removed after transfixation ligation of the spermatic cord using No 2-0 polyglactin 910

• emasculation not recommended due to small cord size

Fighting teeth

• Mature male camelids develop upper and lower canine teeth and upper third incisors, known as fighting teeth

• danger to handlers and other animals due to their sharpness and size

• effect of castration on fighting teeth: no change castration does not alter:

  • the eruption timetable of fighting teeth

  • the need for cutting the teeth

  • their final size

• trimming techniques

  • sedation

  • motorized tooth saw

  • OB wire

vaccination program

• there are no approved vaccines for SACs

• use vaccines approved for sheep, same dose as sheep

• clostridium perfringens C and D and Clostridium tetani

• first dose at 3 months of age and booster one month later. revaccinate annually

• first dose at 2 weeks of age if dam is not vaccinated

• vaccinate pregnant females 1 month before parturition

Jugular venipuncture

• restrain in a chute

• challenging due to lack of jugular furrow and thick skin

• avoid hair clipping; slow regrowth

• preferable on right side to avoid the esophagus

• use 18 gauge, 1.5 inch needle

• key sites

  • High neck: angle of mandible

  • Low neck: base of neck (5th cervical vertebra) - thinner skin

intramascular and subcutaneous injections

Body condition scoring

• Need to palpate fibers can mask emaciation

• score 1-5

• obesity is a common problem in SACs in North America

places to palpate:

1. withers

2. behind the elbow

3. between the rear legs

4. between the front legs

5. perineum