Biology 119 Rutgers

Polymers

A chain of Monomers

Monomers

The basic building block or small molecular blocks

Dehydration synthesis

The release of a hydrogen to in return create a new bond (One loses an H group and the other loses an OH group)

Hydrolysis

With the addition of water, a bond is able to be broken down (One of the molecules gains an H group and the other gains an OH group)

Enzymes

They work to speed up the process of things by lowering the activation energy.

Carbohydrates

monosaccharides that provide cells with a short-term energy source. (example: Glucose, Sucrose, Starch, Cellulose, chitin)

Lipids

Fatty Acids and Glycerol provide cells with long-term energy and make up biological membranes. (example: Fats, phospholipids, waxes, oils, grease, and steroids)

Proteins

Amino Acids that provide cell structures, send chemical signals, and speed up chemical reactions. (example: Keratin, hormones, enzymes, antibodies)

Nucleic Acids

Nucleotides that store and pass on genetic information (example: RNA and DNA)

Hydroxyl Group

Polar, Hydrophilic, Neutral (R-OH)

Carboxyl Group

Polar, Hydrophilic, Neutral (CHO)

Carbonyl Group

Polar, Hydrophilic, Acidic (R-COOH)

Amino Group

Polar, Hydrophilic, Base (R-NH2)

Phosphate Group

Polar, Hydrophilic, Acidic (R - PO4H2)

Methyl Group

nonpolar, Hydrophobic, Neutral (R-CH3)

Organization of life

cell → tissue → organ → organ system → organism → population → community → ecosystem → biosphere

monosaccharides

Simple Sugars, serving as the basic unit of only carbohydrates

polysaccharides

These Complex Carbohydrates are made up of monosaccharides by dehydration synthesis.

Disaccharide

Two monosaccharides that are linked together by dehydration synthesis.

DNA

Deoxyribonucleic Acid comes in a double helix structure and carries genetic information that allows the organism to replicate itself.

DNA building blocks of nitrogen

Adenine and Thymine as a pair, and Guanine and Cytosine as a pair. (Adenine, Thymine, Guanine, Cytosine)

In total, 6 billion Base pairs and 46 chromosomes in a single individual.

RNA

It is a messenger to send the DNA's information and instructions for the assembly of protein synthesis.

peptide bond

forms a bond between two amino acids with a release of water

Catabolism

Breaking down Complex molecules into simpler ones and releasing energy in Metabolism (example: Citric Acid Cycle)

Anabolism

Simple molecules are used with energy to create more complex molecules in Metabolism. (example: Photosynthesis)

Photosynthesis

Light energy captured by Chlorophyll converts carbon dioxide and water into Glucose and oxygen. (equation: 6CO₂ + 6H₂O + Light energy → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂)

Citric Acid Cycle (Krebs Cycle)

a series of chemical reactions that occur in the mitochondria of eukaryotic cells; It is a central pathway in cellular respiration, where glucose and other nutrients are oxidized to generate energy in the form of ATP.

Protein Synthesis

The sequence from DNA to mRNA to Amino Acids.

Metabolism

complex series of chemical reactions that occur within living organisms, converting nutrients into energy and building blocks for growth and repair

Cellular respiration

The breaking down of Glucose to convert it into energy or ATP. (equation: C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ → 6CO₂ + 6H₂O + ATP)

ATP

ATP or Adenosine Triphosphate is a high-energy molecule found in all living organisms.

Nervous system

Neurons and supporting cells

Neurons

Can send and receive signals in Nervous system

Neuronal Plasticity

The ability for the brain to modify after birth occurs at synapses

Short term memory (STM)

stored for a short time, Limited to 7+-2, forgotten if not used.

Long Term Memory (LTM)

Activated when info needs to be retained. As far as we can tell, infinite duration and capacity. Cannot use info directly - retrieved to STM. Use it or lose it. Memory =/= Learning

Long Term Potentiation

Lasting increase in strength of synaptic transmission

Evolution

Unifying idea of biology - all organisms are modified descendants of common ancestors

Emergent properties

Properties that emerge from arrangement and interaction of parts within a system Absent from individual components

Science

a process of testing hypotheses to develop knowledge about the natural world from Latin "to know"

Hypothesis

testable proposed explanation

Prediction

expected outcome when testing a hypothesis

Theory

broad explanatory framework

Law

statement of what occurs under specific conditions

Electrons

Atoms made of subatomic particles - protons, neutrons, electrons. Electrons (e-) are negatively charged subatomic particles. Electrons have potential energy

Valence electrons

Electrons in outermost (valence) shell For elements we care about, H has 2, everything else has 8

Molecule

compound of 2 or more atoms held together by chemical bonds Chemical formula tell what atoms and how many of each Compounds have emergent properties

Chemical Bonds

Result of how atoms share e-"want" full valence shell - will share, donate, or accept e- to achieve Chemical bonds represent potential E

Electronegativity

Measure of atom's affinity for e- Higher = more strongly pull e- towards self

Covalent bond

sharing e- between atoms Strongest bond under biological conditions

Nonpolar covalent bond

equal sharing due to equal or very similar electronegativity

Polar covalent bond

unequal sharing due to unequal electronegativity Results in partial + or partial - charged regions

Ionic bond

attraction between ions (charged atoms) due to gain or loss of e- Due to highly unequal electronegativity

Salts

compound formed by ionic bonds

Van der Waals

Weak bonds that result in temporary imbalances in electron distribution

Hydrogen bond

Hydrogen bonds with N, O, or F.

Cohesion

attraction between water molecules

Adhesion

attraction between water molecules and other substances

Hydrophilic

polar, dissolves in water

Hydrophobic

non-polar, will not dissolve in water

Carbons

Form 4 bonds into complex molecules

Hydrocarbon

ONLY C and H; Nonpolar, hydrophobic

Abiogenesis

Appearance of first cells from non-living precursors

Abiotic synthesis

4 requirements: low free O2 E source, Solar radiation, geothermal, hydrothermal, volcanism, chemical precursors CO2, H2O, CO, H2, N2, possibly others LOTS of time

Vesicle

fluid-filled compartment surrounded by lipid membraneForms spontaneously

Protocell

experimental models for understanding the origin of life by mimicking the basic processes of life, such as compartmentalization, self-replication, and rudimentary metabolism

Self-Replication

In living cells - DNA to RNA to protein

RNA-Peptide World hypothesis

First living things used RNA for both heredity and as enzymes. No DNA and limited role for polypeptides

Ribozymes

RNA enzymes

Autotrophy

creates its own food from inorganic substances like sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide

Prokaryotes

no nucleus

Anaerobic

didn't use/need oxygen

Eukaryotes

Big cell eats smaller cell, smaller cells become incorporated as part of bigger cell

Aerobic

Used Oxygen

Cell

smallest unit that carries out all activities associated with life

Common Features of All Cells

Plasma membrane, Unique internal environment, Store, replicate, transmit genetic information, Divide/reproduce, Metabolism, Interact with/respond to environment, Generally limited in size

Nucleus

Compartment that contains most DNA Surrounded by nuclear envelope - double membrane Passage via nuclear pores - protein complexes that regulate transport in and out

Mitochondria

Generates most of the ATP needed for cellular processes.

Chloroplasts

Site of photosynthesis uses water, carbon dioxide, and light energy to produce sugar and oxygen

Ribosomes

Structures responsible for protein synthesis Present in ALL cells

Endomembrane system

modifies, packages, and transports lipids and proteins within eukaryotic cells and out of the cell

Endoplasmic reticulum

protein synthesis and folding, lipid and steroid synthesis, carbohydrate metabolism, and calcium storage

Rough ER

ribosomes attached, proteins synthesized, transported into lumen

Smooth ER

Lipid synthesis, often very little except in specific cells e.g., liver

Golgi Apparatus

a cellular "post office," receiving proteins and lipids from the endoplasmic reticulum, modifying them, sorting them, and packaging them into vesicles for transport to their correct destinations inside or outside the cell.

Vacuoles

storage (of water, nutrients, ions, and waste), maintaining internal cell pressure (turgor) in plant cells, waste disposal, and the transport and disposal of substances

Lysosomes

Compartment containing hydrolytic/digestive enzymes

Phospholipids

Main structural component of membranes, Glycerol + 2 fatty acid tails (hydrophobic) + phosphate group (hydrophilic)

Amphipathic

Forms phospholipid bilayer has both hydrophilic and hydrophobic properties.

transmembrane

anything existing or arranged from one side to the other of a membrane

Passive Transport

Moves from High to low gradient, does not use ATP, spontaneous, included in simple diffusion, osmosis, and facilitated diffusion.

Diffusion

Tendency of molecules of a substance to fill available space Due to random motion

Dynamic equilibrium

a stable balance between opposing processes that occur at equal rates, maintaining a constant internal environment despite continuous activity and change within a living system

Osmosis

diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane

Solvent

a substance capable of dissolving other substances, the medium in which something is dissolved

Solute

a dissolved substance

Tonicity

Ability of a solution to cause a cell to gain or lose water

Active Transport

Moves from low to high gradient, requires ATP, transports proteins

Bulk Transport

Transport many molecules at once with vesicles

Exocytosis

Vesicle fuses with plasma membrane, contents released