Studying Social Life Sociological Research Methods

Quantitative Research

research that translates the social world into numbers that can be treated mathematically; this type of research often tries to find cause-and-effect relationships

Qualitative research

research that works with nonnumerical data such as texts, field notes, interview transcripts, photographs, and tape recordings; this type of research more often tries to understand how people make sense of their world

Scientific method

a procedure for acquiring knowledge that emphasizes collecting concrete data through observation and experiment

Literature review

a thorough search through previously published studies relevant to a particular topic

Hypothesis

A theoretical statement explaining the relationship between 2 or more phenomena

Variables

2 or more phenomena that a researcher believes are related; these will be examined in the experiement

Operational definition

a clear and precise definition of a variable that facilitates its measurement

Replicabiliity

The ability of research to be repeated and thus,later verified by other researchers

Correlation

A relationship between variables in which they change together and may or may not be casual

Causation

a relationship between variables in which a change in one directly produces a change in the other

intervening variable

a third variable, sometimes overlooked, that explains the relationship between two other variables

Spurious correlation

The appearance of causation produced by an intervening variable

Deductive approach

an approach whereby the researcher formulates a hypothesis first and then gathers data to test that hypothesis

Inductive approach

an approach whereby the researcher gathers data first, then formulates a theory to fit the data

Ethnography

a naturalistic method based on studying people in their own environment in order to understand the meanings they attribute to their activities; also the written work that results from the study

participant observation

a methodology associated with ethnography whereby the researcher both observes and becomes a member in a social setting

Rapport

a positive relationship often characterized by mutual trust or sympathy

Field notes

detailed notes taken by an ethnographer describing her activities and interactions, which later become the basis of the analysis

Autoethnography

a form of participant observation where the feelings and actions of the researcher become a focal point of the ethnographic study

thick description

the presentation of detailed data on interactions and meaning within a cultural context, from the perspective of its members

Reflexivity

how the identity and activities of the researcher influence what is going on in the field setting

grounded theory

an inductive method of generating theory from data by creating categories in which to place data and then looking for relationships among categories

Representativeness

The degree to which a particular studied group is similar to, or represents, any part of the larger society

Validity

the accuracy of a question or measurement tool; the degree to which a researcher is measuring what he thinks he is measuring

Interviews

person-to-person conversations for the purpose of gathering information by means of questions posed to respondents

Respondent

a participant in a study from whom the researcher seeks to gather information

Target population

the entire group about which a researcher would like to be able to generalize

Sample

The members of the target population who will actually be studied

Focus group

a process for interviewing a number of participants together, it also allows for interaction among group members

Informed consent

a safeguard through which the researcher makes sure that respondents are freely participating and understand the nature of the research

Closed-ended question

a question asked of a respondent that imposes a limit on the possible responses

Open-ended question

a question asked of a respondent that allows the answer to take whatever form the respondent chooses

Leading questions

Questions that predispose a respondent to answer in a certain way

Double-barreled questions

questions that attempt to get at multiple issues at once, and so tend to receive incomplete or confusing answers

Life history

an approach to interviewing that asks for a chronological account of the respondent's entire life, or some portion of it

Surveys

research method based on questionnaires that are administered to a sample of respondents selected from a target population

Likert scale

a way of formatting a survey questionnaire so that the respondent can choose an answer along a continuum

Negative questions

survey questions that ask respondents what they don't think instead of what they do think

pilot study

A small-scale carried out to test the feasibility of conducting a study on a larger scale

Probability sampling

Any sampling procedure that uses randomization

Simple random sample

a particular type of probability sample in which every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected

Response rate

The number or percentage of surveys completed by respondents and returned to researchers

Reliability

The consistency of a question or measurement tool; the degree to which the same questions will produce similar answers

Existing sources

materials that have been produced for some other reason, but that can be used as data for social research

Unobtrusive measures

research methods that rely on existing sources and where the researcher does not intrude upon or disturb the social setting or its subjects

comparative historical research

research that uses existing sources to study relationships among elements of society in various regions and time periods

Content analysis

a method in which researchers identify and study specific variables or themes that appear in a text, image, or media message

Experiments

formal tests of specific variables and effects that are performed in a setting where all aspects of the situation can be controlled

Experimental group

The members of a test group who receive the experimental treatment

Control group

the members of a test group who are allowed to continue without intervention so that they can be compared with the experimental group

independent variable

factor that is predicted to cause change

dependent variable

the factor that is changed (or not) by the independent variable

Basic research

the search for knowledge without an agenda or practical goal in mind

Applied search

The search for knowledge that can be used to create social change

Bias

an opinion held by the researcher that might affect the research or analysis

Objectivity

impartiality, the ability to allow the facts to speak for themselves

Reactivity

the tendency of people and events to react to the process of being studied

Hawthorne effect

a specific example of reactivity, in which the desired effect is the result not of the independent variable but of the research itself

Deception

the extent to which the participants in a research project are unaware of the project or its goals

Confidentiality

the assurance that no one other than the researcher will know the identity of a respondent

Code of ethics

ethical guidelines for researchers to consult as they design a project

Institutional review board

a group of scholars within a university who meet regularly to review and approve the research proposals of their colleagues and make recommendations for how to protect human subjects