General Psychology: Motivation, Emotions, Gender & Sexuality

Motivation

the biological, emotional, cognitive, or social forces that activate and direct behavior.

Activation

the initiation of behavior, such as starting to study or begin a project.

Persistence

the continued effort toward a goal despite obstacles.

Intensity

the amount of energy or effort used to pursue a goal.

Instinct Theory

behaviors are unlearned, genetically programmed patterns shared across a species.

Drive-Reduction Theory

physiological needs create a drive (arousal) that motivates behavior to restore homeostasis.

Homeostasis

the body's tendency to maintain a steady internal state (temperature, energy level).

Incentives

external stimuli (positive or negative) that motivate behavior by luring or repelling us.

Arousal Theory

people are motivated to maintain an optimal level of arousal or stimulation.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

a theory that human needs are arranged in levels, with basic needs that must be met before higher-level needs.

Physiological needs

food, water, shelter, medicine.

Safety needs

protection, stability, security.

Belongingness and love needs

relationships, friendships, intimacy.

Esteem needs

achievement, independence, respect from others.

Self-actualization needs

reaching one's fullest unique potential.

Self-transcendence needs

finding meaning beyond oneself.

Self-Determination Theory

humans are growth-oriented and need three basic psychological needs to function optimally.

Autonomy

control over one's own behavior and goals.

Competence

ability to learn and master challenging tasks.

Relatedness

need to feel connected and secure with others.

Achievement Motivation

the drive to excel, succeed, or outperform others.

Positive Incentive Value

the anticipated pleasure of eating motivates food consumption.

Evolutionary Perspective

overeating developed as an adaptation to store energy for times of scarcity.

Satiation

the feeling of fullness that reduces the desire to keep eating.

Emotion

a complex psychological state involving physiological arousal, expressive behaviors, and conscious experience (thoughts/feelings).

Mood

a diffuse, longer-lasting emotional state without a specific trigger.

Emotion vs Mood

emotions are short-lived, have a clear trigger, and involve facial expressions; moods are longer, diffuse, and lack unique facial expressions.

Charles Darwin

proposed facial expressions are innate and universal across cultures.

Evolutionary Perspective of Emotion

emotions evolved to help humans survive (fear = avoid danger, love = mate, anger = defense).

Six Universal Emotions

fear, surprise, anger, disgust, happiness/joy, sadness.

Dimensions of Emotion

classified by pleasantness (pleasant ↔ unpleasant), arousal (low ↔ high), interpersonal engagement - the degree emotions involve others.

James-Lange Theory

emotions result from awareness of bodily reactions to stimuli.

Cannon-Bard Theory

emotion and bodily arousal occur at the same time.

Two-Factor Theory

emotion results from physical arousal and a cognitive label.

Cognitive Appraisal Theory

emotions are triggered by personal interpretation (appraisal) of events, not necessarily physical arousal.

Autonomic Nervous System

controls arousal.

Sympathetic Division

triggers arousal via adrenaline and norepinephrine (↑ HR, BP, blood sugar).

Parasympathetic Division

calms the body by inhibiting hormone release.

Fight-or-Flight Response

automatic survival response involving stress hormones that prepare the body for immediate action.

Cortex

brain's thinking center involved in conscious emotion.

Amygdala

brain's emotional control center, especially for fear.

Thalamus-Amygdala Pathway

fast, direct route that produces quick emotional reactions before conscious thought.

Emotional Intelligence (EI)

the ability to understand and manage your emotions and respond appropriately to others'.

Facial Expressions

universal and innate forms of emotional communication.

Gestures

cultural, vary across societies (hand signs, winks, etc.).

Facial Feedback Hypothesis

facial expressions can trigger or intensify emotions.

Empathy & Facial Feedback

imitating another's expression makes us more likely to feel what they feel.

Fear

involves the amygdala; may be learned biologically or through observation.

Anger

strong emotional response; catharsis = emotional release, best managed by forgiveness.

Happiness

linked to feel-good, do-good phenomenon; adaptation-level phenomenon; relative deprivation; subjective well-being.

Sex

biological category defined by genetics, anatomy, and reproductive organs.

Gender

cultural, social, and psychological meanings associated with masculinity/femininity.

Testosterone

hormone influencing sexual activity and motivation in both men and women.

Gender-role stereotypes

widely held beliefs about traits and behaviors of men and women.

Social Learning Theory

gender roles learned through reinforcement, punishment, and modeling.

Gender Schema Theory

gender roles shaped by mental frameworks (schemas) about masculinity/femininity.

Mating strategies

men prefer youth/attractiveness, women prefer financial security/status, reflecting evolutionary pressures.

Masters & Johnson's Sexual Response Cycle

four stages: Excitement, Plateau, Orgasm, Resolution.

Sexual Dysfunction

ongoing problems with desire, arousal, or release that cause distress.

Lifelong

present since becoming sexually active.

Acquired

develops after normal functioning.

Generalized

occurs in all situations.

Situational

occurs only in specific contexts.

Sexual Orientation

emotional/erotic attraction (heterosexual, homosexual, bisexual).

Gender Identity

a person's inner sense of masculinity or femininity.

Gender Dysphoria

distress from mismatch between biological sex and gender identity.

Paraphilia

abnormal sexual behaviors or urges focused on unusual targets.

Biological Theories

genetics, hormones, or brain dysfunction (temporal lobe).

Psychological/Social Theories

maladaptive responses to trauma.

Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT)

challenges distorted thinking.

Impulse Control Training

resist urges.

Relapse Prevention

avoid triggers.

Medication

hormonal drugs to reduce testosterone, antidepressants to alter neurotransmitters.

Castration

chemical or surgical suppression of testosterone.