AP Psych Unit 2- Research Methods (Myers Textbook)

Limits of Intuition

Hindsight bias, judgmental confidence, and a tendency to perceive patterns in random events lead us to overestimate our intuition

Hindsight Bias

The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it (I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon)

“Rage for Order”

With our natural eagerness to make sense of the world, we are prone to perceive patterns. Even in random data, we find order

Humility

An awareness of our own vulnerability to error and an openness to surprises and new perspectives

Critical Thinking

A kind of thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, assesses the source, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, assesses conclusions, and helps clear the colored lens of our bias

Theory

An explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events

Hypothesis

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory

Operational Definition

A carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study to check for bias

Replication

Repeating the essence of a research, usually with different participants and situations, to see whether the base finding extends to other participants and circumstances

Descriptive Methods

Method to refine theories and test hypothesis in which one describes behaviors through case studies, surveys, or naturalistic observation

Correlational Methods

Method to refine theories and test hypothesis in which one associates different factors or variables

Experimental Methods

Method to refine theories and test hypotheses in which one manipulates variables to discover their effects

Case Study

A descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hopes of revealing universal principles; can suggest fruitful ideas but may mislead us if the individual is atypical

Naturalistic Observation

Observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the system

Survey

A technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group

Sampling Bias

A flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample

Population

All those in a group being studies, from which samples may be drawn

Random Sample

A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

Correlation

The measure of how one trait or behavior is related to another and how well either variable predicts the other

Correlation Coefficient

A statistical index that reveals the extent to which two things relate (ranging from -1.0 to +1.0) The closer the score gets to -1 or +1, the stronger the correlation

Scatter Plot

A graphed cluster of dots representing the values of two variables

Illusory Correlation

The perception of a relationship where none exists. When we notice random coincidences, we may forget they’re random and instead see them as correlated; helps explain superstitious beliefs

Experiment

A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (dependent variable) by random assignment of participants to control other relevant factors

Experimental Group

Group exposed to the treatment

Control Group

Group not exposed

Double-Blind Procedure

An experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies

Placebo Effect

Experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent

Independent Variable

The factor that is manipulated and whose effect is being studied

Cofounding Variable

A factor, other than the independent factor, that might produce an effect in an experiment

Dependant Variable

The outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable

Validity

The extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it is supposed to

Descriptive Statistics

Numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups. Included measures of central tendency and measures of variation

Histogram

A bar graph depicting a frequency distribution

Mode

The most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution

Mean

The arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then by dividing them by the number of scores (most commonly reported)

Median

The middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it

Skewed Distribution

A representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value

Range

A crude estimate of variation. The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution

Standard Deviation

More useful standard and computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score

Normal Curve

(Normal Distribution) A symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (about 68 percent fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer near the extremes

Inferential Statistics

Numerical data that allows one to generalize- to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population

Statistical Significance

A statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance. When sample averages are reliable and the difference between them is relatively large; indicates the likelihood that a result will happen by chance but does not say anything about the importance of the result

Culture

The enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next

Collectivist Culture

Cultures that emphasize group goals

Individualist Cultures

Cultures that put a priority on individual goals

APA Guidelines about Animal Ethics in Research

State researchers must ensure the “comfort, health, and humane treatment” of animals and minimize “infections, illness, and pain”

Informed Consent

An ethical principle that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate

Debriefing

The post experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions to its participants