Philosphy

Socrates

The central figure, known as 'The Wise Man'. A Greek philosopher whose ideas are primarily known through the writings of his students.

Plato and Xenophon

The two most important primary sources for understanding Socrates, providing diverse perspectives on his life and philosophy.

Euthydemus

A conversational partner of Socrates, particularly in discussions about 'Know Thyself'.

Critobulus

A young, handsome man who challenged Socrates to prove he was 'more beautiful' in Xenophon's Symposium.

Thrasymachus

A Sophist who engaged Socrates in a significant debate on justice in Plato's Republic.

Sophists

A group of 'teachers of human excellence' or 'virtue (arete)' who often charged fees for their instruction, contrasting with Socrates' approach. They were sometimes seen as valuing persuasion and rhetoric over truth.

Oracle at Delphi

The source of the proclamation that no one was wiser than Socrates, which led him to his lifelong quest of questioning others.

Chaerephon

Socrates' friend who queried the Oracle at Delphi about Socrates' wisdom.

Socrates Physical Appearance

Unconventionally ugly with a large, flat, turned-up nose, protruding eyes, thick lips, and a belly. He was indifferent to his appearance, believing inner character was more important than outward looks.

What is Socrates known for

His remarkable self-control, temperance, indifference to physical pleasures, and ability to endure hardship (e.g., barefoot in winter).

Socrates Lifestyle

Lived a simple, unadorned life, wearing one tattered coat, being barefoot, and showing no interest in material possessions or wealth. He did not charge fees for his teaching, unlike the Sophists.

Robustness

Physically strong and capable of enduring cold, hardship, and lack of sleep or food, especially during military campaigns.

Philosophical Demeanor

Engaging, challenging, and often humorous in his interactions, always aiming to provoke thought and self-examination.

Know Thyself

The central guiding motto of Socratic philosophy, inscribed on the temple wall at Delphi. It emphasizes the importance of self-examination and understanding one's own character.

The Unexamined Life

Socrates famously declared that 'the unexamined life is not worth living' for human beings. This concept highlights the need for continuous self-reflection and critical inquiry into one's beliefs and values.

Virtue (Arete)

Translated as 'excellence' or 'human excellence.' Socrates believed virtue is a kind of knowledge and is teachable. He connected virtue to inner qualities, happiness, and the well-being of the soul.

Socratic Intellectualism

The belief that no one knowingly does evil; all wrongdoing stems from ignorance. If someone knows what is truly good, they will pursue it.

The Soul (Psyche)

Socrates believed the soul is the most important part of a person and that cultivating it should be our primary concern. The health of the soul is essential for ethical living.

Human Wisdom

Socrates' understanding of wisdom was not possessing vast knowledge but rather knowing the extent of one's own ignorance. He saw himself as a 'wise man' because he recognized what he did not know.

Happiness

Attained through inner goodness and the cultivation of virtue, not external factors like wealth or beauty.

Socratic Method (Dialectic/Elenchus)

A question-and-answer technique used to stimulate critical thinking and expose contradictions in arguments. Socrates used it to help individuals examine their beliefs and clarify concepts, often without directly stating his own conclusions.

Socratic Irony

A communication style where Socrates would say one thing but mean another, often feigning ignorance or praising an opponent while subtly undermining their position. This was used to engage listeners and encourage deeper thought.

'Midwife' of Ideas

Socrates saw himself as assisting others in 'giving birth' to their own insights, rather than directly imparting knowledge.

Trial and Death - Accusations

Indicted for impiety (not recognizing the city's gods and introducing new ones) and corrupting the youth.

Trial and Death - Defense

Socrates defended his life's mission as a public service, urging Athenians to care for their souls and pursue truth.

Trial and Death - Verdict

Convicted and sentenced to death.

Trial and Death - Execution

Drank hemlock, a toxic plant. He accepted his fate, choosing to obey the laws of Athens even when he believed the verdict was unjust. His death solidified his philosophical stance and made him a martyr for truth.

Archetypal Individual/Paradigm

Socrates is considered an archetypal or paradigmatic individual for wisdom, representing a universal human pattern of moral and intellectual integrity and relentless self-examination.

Enduring Influence

Socrates' emphasis on self-knowledge, virtue, and critical inquiry has had a profound and lasting impact on Western philosophy and thought.

Sophists

Fifth-century B.C.E. teachers of rhetoric who were paid for their instruction.

Historical Context of Sophists

Emerged in Athens during the fifth century B.C.E., a period of democratic growth.

Curriculum of Sophists

Focused on rhetoric, politics, ethics, anthropology, psychology, and sociology.

Key Skills of Sophists

Known for their ability to use emotional appeal, physical appearance, and clever language to 'make the weaker argument appear the stronger'.

View on Truth by Sophists

Concluded that 'The Truth' is impossible to discover, as the distinction between 'good' and 'bad' arguments is based on custom and individual preference.

Amorality/Immorality of Sophists

Often perceived as amoral or immoral, teaching persuasion for personal gain, even in legal or political contexts.

Influence on Democracy by Sophists

Challenged established moral beliefs and aristocratic privilege, fostering individualism and freedom of expression.

Modern Usage of 'Sophist'

The term 'Sophist' is often used as a criticism today.

Protagoras of Abdera

Considered the greatest of the Sophists and an archetypal figure.

Central Philosophy of Protagoras

Relativism.

Famous Statement of Protagoras

'Man is the measure of all things, of the things that are, [how] they are, and the things that are not, [how] they are not.'

Examples of Relativism

If one feels cold, it is cold for them; if another feels hot, it is hot for them. Neither is wrong.

Basis of Relativism

Knowledge is determined by the specific qualities of the observer, including age, family background, personal abilities, preferences, religious training, and location.

Moral Relativism

Believed that morals are nothing more than social traditions, or 'mores,' of a society or group.

Nature of Morals according to Protagoras

Virtually nothing is good or bad by nature, but by custom and preference.

Proof of Moral Standards

It is impossible to establish a non-biased way to prove one moral standard is better than another.

Values according to Protagoras

Moral and social values are matters of individual taste and opinion.

Pragmatism

Defined as the idea that truth value comes from practical results and what works to achieve one's aims.

Protagoras's view on 'The Gods'

Claimed he could not know whether the gods existed, their nature, or their appearance due to the subject's obscurity and the brevity of human life.

Relativism

The belief that knowledge, truth, and morality are not absolute but are determined by specific qualities of the observer, culture, or individual preferences.

Cultural Relativism

The belief that values are culturally determined, with no fixed moral order; customs and preferences vary widely between cultures.

Individual Relativism

The belief that right and wrong are unique to individual experiences and preferences.

Subjectivism

While Sophists believed we only know our own sensations, this is distinct from strict subjectivism, which refers to only knowing one's own perceptions.

Ethnocentrism

The belief that one's own culture is superior to all others.

Moral Realism

A pragmatic social philosophy where morality is expressed as 'might makes right'.

The Doctrine of the Superior Individual

Advanced by Callicles (c. 455 B.C.E.), arguing that the truly superior individual has a natural right to dominate others.

Protagoras's Wager

A famous legal dilemma involving Protagoras and his student, Eulathus, highlighting the Sophists' clever use of rhetoric to argue either side of a case.

Pragmatism (Sophists' approach)

From the Greek word 'deed,' this philosophy defines knowledge and truth in terms of practical consequences and usefulness.

Callicles' argument

Challenges the idea that all should willingly submit to those in power or rely on a group for influence.

Socrates' opposition to Callicles

Argued that Callicles' view leads to chaos.

Physician's role in pragmatism

A physician changes a patient from a 'worse' state (sickness) to a 'better' state (health) by guiding them to a more advantageous perception.

Wise teacher's role in pragmatism

A wise teacher persuades people to adopt 'better' perceptions and values.

Sophists' practical approach

Focused on 'what worked' in terms of knowledge and truth.

Protagoras' measure of 'good'

Considered 'what is useful' or 'what works' to be the measure of what is 'good' or 'better' for a particular person, time, place, and culture.

Sophists' belief in knowledge

Believed we only know our own sensations, which influences their views on truth and morality.

Obscurity of the subject

Refers to the difficulty in knowing the nature or existence of the gods as stated by Protagoras.

Exile from Athens

Protagoras faced exile from Athens and the burning of his books due to his views.

Natural order according to Callicles

Argued that the domination of the superior individual aligns with the natural order.

Sophos

Original Greek term meaning 'wise men' or 'sage'; in early times referred to respected elders, not professional thinkers, and they were almost exclusively male.

Philosopher

From the Greek for 'wise'; a lover of wisdom who is not a professional thinker; their life goal is to 'be different'.

Shift in Role

Presocratic philosophers were seen as proto-scientists who transformed myth into rational inquiry about nature and the cosmos, establishing a method for universal truth.

Rational Discourse

Use of reason to order, clarify, and identify reality and truth according to agreed-upon verification standards.

Principle of Sufficient Reason

Nothing happens without a reason; there are no unexplained facts; presocratics emphasized rational argument, observation, and the role of language in philosophy.

Monism

Belief that there is only one reality; monists include Thales, Anaximander, Anaximenes, and Heraclitus.

Pluralism

Belief that there exist many realities or substances; pluralists include Empedocles, Anaxagoras, and Democritus.

The Problem of Change

A central issue in Presocratic philosophy about how change occurs.

Thales

From Miletus; considered the first Western philosopher; proposed water as the fundamental principle and sought rational explanations over myth.

Anaximander

Thales's pupil; introduced apeiron ('the Indefinite-Infinite') as the first principle; apeiron is boundless, eternal, surrounding all things, with cosmic justice that things decay back to it.

Apeiron

The Indefinite-Infinite; the first principle that is boundless and eternal.

Anaximenes

Anaximander's pupil; proposed pneuma (air) as the ultimate spirit; change explained by rarefaction (air to fire) and condensation (air to wind, cloud, water, earth, stone).

Pneuma

Air; the ultimate pervasive spirit that holds the world together.

Heraclitus

From Ephesus; doctrine of constant change; 'Everything flows' and 'you cannot step into the same river twice'; fire as the primary element; Logos as universal reason; unity of opposites through tension.

Logos

Divine, universal reason or principle that governs the cosmos; humans may fail to understand it as they are 'asleep' or absent-minded.

Pythagoreans

Group founded by Pythagoras; numbers are the fundamental reality; emphasized harmony, order, and proportion, leading to 'cosmic music'; contributed to mathematics, astronomy, and the idea of an ordered cosmos.

Parmenides of Elea

Philosopher who argued that Being is eternal, unchanging, indivisible, and perfect; not-being cannot be conceived; change and multiplicity are illusions.

Being

That which exists; what truly is.

Not-being

Non-existence; nothing that can be thought or talked about.

Zeno of Elea

Parmenides's pupil who formulated paradoxes to defend that motion and plurality are illusory and change is impossible.

The Dichotomy

Paradox: to reach a destination you must first reach half the distance, then half of the remaining distance, ad infinitum—an infinite number of points to traverse.

Achilles and the Tortoise

Paradox showing pursuit never overtakes the lead due to infinite subdivision of distances.

The Flying Arrow

Paradox claiming a flying arrow is at rest at every instant of its flight, implying it is never truly moving.

Empedocles

Pluralist who proposed four roots (earth, air, fire, water) and two forces (Love and Strife) causing mixing and separation; universe operates in a cycle of creation and destruction.

Four roots

Earth, air, fire, and water; the basic constituents proposed by Empedocles.

Love

One of Empedocles's two forces; attraction/unity that combines roots.

Strife

One of Empedocles's two forces; separation/disunity that breaks apart roots.

Anaxagoras

Pluralist who argued the universe is made of infinitely many seeds (spermata) containing parts of all things; introduced Nous (Mind) as the organizing principle.

Spermata (Seeds)

Parts of all things contained within infinitely many seeds that compose everything.

Nous

'Mind' or intelligent principle that orders the seeds and brings order to the cosmos.

Democritus

Atomist who argued the universe consists of atoms and void; atoms are indivisible and move in the void; differences in shape, size, position, and arrangement; knowledge from senses is unreliable; true knowledge comes from reason.

Atoms

Indivisible, indestructible units that make up matter and move in the void.

Void

Empty space where atoms move; not-being.