ap psych cluster 1 (princeton review)

longitudinal experiment

a study in which subjects are followed and periodically reassessed over a period of time

Correlational analysis

statistical method that is used to discover if there is a relationship between two variables/datasets (e.g sleep and test scores)

Observational Study

research that gathers data in a real-world setting without intentionally manipulating any variable

Case Study

an observation technique in which ONE person is studied in DEPTH in the hope of revealing universal principles

independent variable

variable that is manipulated

Control Variable

the variables you keep the same in an experiment

Dependent variable

a variable (often denoted by y ) whose value depends on that of another.

congnitive behavioral therapy

a type of therapy that focuses on clarifying patients' distorted thoughts and behaviors

rational-emotional behavior therapy (REBT)

a confrontational cognitive therapy, developed by Albert Ellis, that vigorously challenges people's illogical, self-defeating attitudes and assumptions

Biofeedback

The process of learning to control bodily states by monitoring the states to be controlled

Hypnosis

state of consciousness in which the person is especially susceptible to suggestion

serial position effect

tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list

Stroop Effect

decreased speed of naming the color of ink used to print words when the color of ink and the word itself are of different colors

Flynn effect

observation that each generation has a significantly higher IQ than the previous generation

bystander effect

the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present

positive punishment

the administration of a stimulus to decrease the probability of a behavior's recurring

Negative punishment

the removal of a stimulus to decrease the probability of a behavior's recurring

negative reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: negative reinforcement is not punishment.)

positive reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.

PET Imaging (Positron Emission Tomography)

uses radioactive glucose (instead of a strong magnetic field) to help study and visualize metabolic activity in organs and tissues

MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)

a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue. MRI scans show brain anatomy.

fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging)

a technique for revealing blood flow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. MRI scans show brain anatomy; fMRI scans show brain function.

EEG (electroencephalogram)

shows brain's electrical activity by positioning electrodes over the scalp

mnemonic devices

strategies for enhancing memory

Algorithms

very specific, step-by-step procedures for solving certain types of problems

Displacement errors

the process of learning from mistakes by transferring—or displacing—a wrong answer with the correct one

cross-sectional study

a study in which people of different ages are compared with one another

archival study

a descriptive method in which already existing records are reexamined for a new purpose

naturalistic observation

observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

self-serving bias

a readiness to perceive oneself favorably

actor-observer bias

the tendency to blame our actions on the situation and blame the actions of others on their personalities

fundamental attribution error

the tendency for observers, when analyzing others' behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition (e.g assuming someone is "lazy" because they leave a mess, rather than considering external factors like a stressful day)

Optimism bias

the cognitive tendency to overestimate the likelihood of positive events and underestimate the likelihood of negative events

functional fixedness

a cognitive bias that prevents a person from seeing an object as having more than one or two typical uses, limiting their ability to think creatively to solve a problem; an impediment to problem solving

Trail-and-error

problem-solving method in which one possible solution after another is tried until a successful one is found

Algorithmic Thinking

The process of solving problems using a series of steps.

availability heuristic

Fearing sometint based on external sources although that something in reality is not as dangerous as it is made out to be. (Eg. Sharks, Planes)

displacement (defense mechanism)

• The transfer of feelings from one target to another that is considered less threatening or that is neutral.

EX: A client is angry at his doctor, does not express it, but becomes verbally abusive with the nurse.

sympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations

parasympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy

Somatic system

Part of the nervous system that controls voluntary muscles.

limbic system

neural system located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives

correlation coefficient

a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1)

Double-Blind experiment

an experiment in which neither the experimenter nor the participants know which participants received which treatment

Amygdala

A limbic system structure involved in memory and emotion, particularly fear and aggression.

reconstructive memory

memory that has been simplified, enriched, or distorted, depending on an individual's experiences and attitudes

Eidetic memories

photographic memories

flashbulb memory

a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event

Proactive memories

when access to newer memories is impaired by older memories

Assimilation

interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas

accommodation

the process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina

Somnambulism

sleepwalking

Wernike's area (of the brain)

A region of the brain located in the left frontal lobe. It plays a crucial role in language comprehension

auditory nerve (of the brain)

conducts the sound wave to the brain for perception

optic chiasm (brain)

point at which optic nerve fibers cross in the brain. Funcrtion to process visual information from the eyes and transmit it to the brain

Boreca's area (of the brain)

region of the brain that contains neurons involved in speech function. (You might have problems with this area if you have speech/stuttering/ accumulation/communciation problems!)

Prospective memory

remembering to do things in the future. Stronger when there are cues. E.g. an older person may require to write down to take pills three times a day.

Episodic memory

A category of long-term memory that involves the recollection of specific events, situations and experiences in detail

Semantic memory

a type of long-term memory involving the capacity to recall words, concepts, or numbers (e,g knowing that the sky is blue, the grass is green, or remembering what "literature" means)

Procedural memory

long-term memory system that stores and retrieves information on how to perform procedures and cognitive skills (e.g remembers how to play a song on the piano you havent played in 5 years)