Rigid segment of the Earth's crust which 'floats' across heavier, semi-molten rock
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What is a plate margin/boundary?
Where two tectonic plates meet (where natural hazards form)
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Tectonic plates are made of 2 types of crusts...
continental crust - old (1500 million+ y.o.), less dense, cannot sink, cannot be renewed/destroyed, thicker than oceanic (30-50km)
oceanic crust - new (less then 200 y.o.), denser, can sink, can be renewed/destroyed, thinner (5-10km)
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What are destructive margins?
- two plates are moving towards each other; an oceanic plate meets a continental plate, the denser oceanic plate subducts into the mantle and destroyed creating gas-rich magma. volcanoes and ocean trenches occur here. - two continental plates meet, ground folds upwards creating fold mountains
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What are constructive margins?
Where two plates are moving away from each other; magma rises from the mantle to fill the gap and then cools, creating new crust
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What are conservative margins?
Plates are moving sideways past each other or are moving in the same direction but at different speeds.
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What hazards are associated with destructive (o>c) plate boundaries?
earthquakes from friction of subduction
volcanoes as final product
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What hazards are associated with convergent (c>c) plate boundaries?
earthquakes from collison
fold mountains from final product
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What hazards are associated with constructive plate boundaries?
earthquakes through breaking through crust
volcanoes as final products
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What hazards are associated with conservative plate boundaries?
earthquakes through friction
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What is an earthquake?
The shaking that results from the movement of rock beneath Earth's surface.
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What is the focus in earthquakes?
The position in the Earth from where the Earthquake originated
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What is the epicentre in earthquakes?
The point of the Earth's surface directly above the focus
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What are the 2 scales which measures earthquakes and what they measure?
-Richter Scale measures energy released -Mercalli Scale measures visible impacts
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What is the definition of a volcano?
A volcano is a rupture in the surface of the Earth that allows molten lava, ash and gas to escape.
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What measures volcanoes?
Volcanic Explosivity Index
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What plate boundaries are volcanoes found?
volcanoes are found at constructive and destructive plate boundaries
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What are the distinctive features of a volcano?
Main vent, secondary vent, crater, magma chamber and the explosive material
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What do volcanoes produce?
ash, lava, volcanic bombs, pyroclastic flows or lahars
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What are positive effects of volcanoes?
- geothermal energy
- ash (to fertilise soil)
- tourism
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What are negative effects of volcanoes?
- danger
- damage to property
- difficulty for businesses to operate
- damage to habitats/landscapes
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What is a lahar?
a destructive volcanic landslide or mudlfow, consisting of a mixture of volcanic debris, mud, rock and water
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What are composite volcanoes?
tall, cone-shaped mountains with layers of lava alternating with layers of ash; having acid lava and violent eruptions within long period of erupting
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What are shield volcanoes?
Quiet eruptions gradually build up a gently sloping mountain with basic lava and shorter periods between eruptions
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Where do you find composite volcanoes?
You find composite volcanoes on destructive plate margins
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Where do you find shield volcanoes?
You find shield volcanoes on constructive plate boundaries
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How do you monitor changes to a shape of a volcano?
Tiltmeters and GPS measures the change of shape of a volcano
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What are the warning signs of an eruption
escaping gas and rising temperatures
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Why do people live by volcanoes?
- volcanic land and ash provides fertile land increasing crop yields for farmers
- tourism > money > benefits economy
- geothermal energy -> cheaper electricity for locals
- minerals in lava make money (diamonds)
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How many people live on or close to volcanoes?
500 million (1/14th of population)
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What are the risks of living near or on a volcano?
- gas pollution - uncertain living conditions/evacuation - losing jobs/ no livelihood - no insurance for damage - high vulnerability - homelessness
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What are the management strategies for reducing the risk of tectonic hazards?
Monitoring- scientific equipment detects warning signs of events
Prediction- using historical evidence and monitoring, scientists can predict when and where tectonic hazards may happen
Protecting- designing buildings that will withstand tectonic hazards
Planning- identifying and avoiding places most at risk
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How are volcanoes monitored?
- measuring gas detection released as magma rises - remote sensing detects heat and changes to shape of volcano by satellites - ground deformation shows the changes to the shape of the volcano- measured using laser beams - geographical measurements detect changes in gravity as magma rises to the surface
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How are earthquakes monitored?
Hard to monitor as they're below ground but changes in water pressure, ground deformation and minor tremors prior to an earthquake
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How are earthquakes predicted?
- Seismic Gap Theory - detecting gases Thoron and Boron shows the plates are reacting
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How are volcanoes predicted?
- based on scientific monitoring
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What protection is there from earthquakes?
EARTHQUAKE PROOF BUILDINGS: - reinforced concrete and steel walls reduce movement - open evacuation areas - shock absorbers to absorb ground shaking - automatic shutters prevents broken glass falling - triangular shaped buildings
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what protection is there from volcanoes?
- earth embankments or explosives to divert lava flow (done on Mount Etna in Italy)
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How can you plan for tectonic hazards?
- hazard maps - training people on earthquake drills or education through TV/RADIO - emergency kits (first aid, blankets, water, tinned food)