Everything-UP TO MURRAY.

What does parsons argue about stratification and value consensus?

Stratification grow out of value consensus. People who exemplify the values are rewarded with prestige.

Those in positions of power use their power to pursue collective goals - they use power for the benefit of society as a whole.

What does parsons argue about stratification?

Stratification systems derive from common values.

Stratification is an inevitable part of all human societies.

In a specialized division of labour, you need some people to work and some people to organize other peoples work - organizing is paid better.

People who display society’s values are naturally going to get rewards.

Inequality in power benefits all members of society, as those with power use it to keep society running smoothly.

What do Davis and Moore suggest about role allocation?

Functionalists.

People differ in terms of ability and talent.

Jobs differ in importance for survival and maintenance of society.

Some jobs are functionally important. These require training and skills. The number of people capable of doing these are limited.

Stratification matches the most able with the most functionally important roles.

People need to be given rewards to motivate them to do the training and take on the responsibility of the important roles.

What is the functional prerequisite according to Davis and Moore?

Something important for society that they need to function.

Talent isn't equally distributed throughout society.

In the education system, we need a skilling system to make sure the most talented people are identified.

Describe what Davis and Moore say about functional importance?

They argued all societies need a ‘mechanism’ for ensuring effective role allocation and performance.

This mechanism is social stratification - a system that attaches unequal rewards and privileges to different positions in society.

Higher rewards are attached to the most functionally important decisions to attract the most able.

Who criticised what Davis and Moore said about functional importance?

Marxist, Tumin.

Suggested D+M ignored the influence of power on unequal distribution of rewards.

Differences in pay and prestige in jobs may be due to power, rather than functional importance.

Give examples of closed systems (of determining class).

Slavery - stratification based on ownership and being owned. Status is ascribed.

Caste - stratification based on what caste people are born into. Believed that actions in previous lives determine caste. People can ensure their next caste is good by following rules.

Apartheid - in South Africa. Based on government policy of racial segregation. Divided by white or non-white.

Give examples of open systems (of determining class).

Social Class - Main form of stratification in Britain. Based on economic factors such as income. Status is achieved. It is said to be an open system. Social mobility is possible.

What is stratification?

The way society divided hierarchically based on various factors with the most privileged at the top, and least privileged at the bottom.

What is social inequality?

The unequal distribution of resources and opportunities based on class, gender, ethnicity and age.

What is income?

Money recieved in cash (eg wages), or kind (use of company car.)

What is wealth?

Ownership of assets, such as property, land, works of art. Money in savings and shares.

What is status?

Social standing or prestige that an individual in a social position is given by other members of society.

Sociologists outline class as having 4 key apeckts. What are these?

1. A shared economic situation

2. Shared attitudes, beliefs, values and behaviour

3. Awareness of membership

4. Action to promote their shared interests.

What is class consciousness?

Where the working class recognizes their situation and become a ‘class’ for themselves. There will be a revolution.

What did marx mean by the polarisation of classes?

Marx believed capitalists would always attempt to maintain profits by keeping wages as low as possible, and by introducing new forms of technology that replaced workers with machines (mechanisation).

This would create greater differences between the classes and increase class conflict between them.

He described this process as the polarisation of classes.

What did marx mean by alienation?

Marx suggested people didn't make people happy, because they weren't in control of their lives, and often lived in fear of losing their jobs and homes.

Marx said capitalism treated people as if they were ‘commodities’ - things that could be bought or disposed of as required.

What are criticisms of Marxists view of class?

Ignores factors like racism which limit the opportunity of minority ethnic groups.

Feminists argue focusing solely on economics makes his theory overly deterministic and ignores other important factors such as gender.

Why does marx think class is more important than gender or ethnicity?

Because society is directly rooted in the economic base, which they argue determines all other social relationships and inequalities.

They suggest divisions like gender and ethnicity serve to trick the WC into fighting one another over cultural identities, rather than rebelling against the bourgeoisie.

It therefore creates false class consciousness, distracting the WC from their shared exploitation.

How does Weber see stratification?

In a similar way to Marx - based on economic differences and the relationship to he labour market.

One class hires people, the other sells their labour.

Weber saw the significance of this being in the rewards or ‘life chances’ that arise from this.

Life chances are the chances of achieving positive or negative outcomes throughout life (health, housing, education etc.)

He saw class as a group of similarly minded people,

How did Weber view class and status?

Class is based on economic factors - position in economic market.

Status is based on the prestige and honour afforded to certain groups.

Weber believed people signify class membership through their lifestyle - leisure activities, clothes they wear, house they live in, etc.

People therefore make judgements about people based on their consumption (spending) rather than production (earning).

Class and status are therefore less closely linked than Marx suggests.

What is power?

The ability to get your way in the face of opposition.

What are the 3 types of authority? Who identified these?

Marxist sociologist, Weber.

Rational - obedience is based on a set of rules or laws.

Traditional authority - obedience is based on custom and tradition.

Charismatic authority - obedience based on a person’s charisma or exceptional personal qualities.

What did Weber argue about Marx's two-class model?

He argued it was overly simplistic.

Marx argued capitalism would lead to increasing polarisation, shrinking the middle class and pushing society towards two opposing classes.

Weber believed capitalism would result i the growth of the MC, partly as industrial societies require large bureacracies staffed by managers and professionals.

What did Weber believe about class in society?

Classes in capitalist society develop through people’s market situation - their position within a market economy.

Individuals with skills in high demand, such a professionals with specialist qualifications, could command higher salaries and therefore experience different life chances.

Weber dstinguished class from status. Class is based on economic factors such as income and skills, whereas status groups are based on social honour, prestige or lifestyle.

Who talked about social closure an what did they say?

Weber.

He described social closure as a way status groups protect their privilages by restricting access, excluding particular occupations, ethnicities and social backgrounds.

What did Weber mean by Party?

It referred to organized groups including political parties, pressure groups or interest groups whose main goal is the pursuit of social or political power.

What is a criticism of Marx and Weber’s views?

The New Right argues both Marx and Weber ignore the significant social mobility and opportunities created by capitalist societies.

What is the embourgeoisement thesis?

A hypothesis suggesting WC families are becoming MC in their norms and values, as their income and standards of living improve.

What is affluence?

Having a lot of money and material possessions.

What does Lockwood suggest about subcultures?

David Lockwood studied proletarian traditionalists.

They were workers who lived in close-knit communities, were employed in long established industries, and had a strong sense of solidarity and belonging.

Leisure generally took place with colleagues.

There was a strong sense of loyalty, often expressed through union membership.

They tended to be fatalistic and saw little chance of individual effort in changing the future, seeing collective action as necessary.

Describe Goldthorpe’ study of affluent workers. (Sample, etc.)

Him and a group of colleagues tried to find evidence of embourgeoisement.

A sample of 229 manual workers and 59 white collar workers from Luton.

Describe what Goldthorpe found in his study of affluent workers.

Nearly 50% of manual workers had moved to the south east of England in search of secure and well-paid employment.

Affluent workers had an instrumental attitude to paid work - their work was a means to an end (early money to improve living standards) rather than to get satisfaction.

Affluent workers supported the labour party for individual gain and their attitude to trade unions was instrumental. Unlike the traditional working class, they weren't motivated by working-class solidarity and the idea of ‘sticking together.’

What did Devine do?

Devine revisited Luton to explore whether Lockwood’s idea that privatised instumentalism would become typical among the working class was true.

Describe Devine’s research methods. What was the point?

Conducted in depth interviews with around 60 workers at the vauxhall car plant in Luton or their wives.

By returning to Luton, she was able to make a direct comparison with the work of Goldthrope and Lockwood in the 1960s

What did Devine find on her study about affluent workers?

She criticised Glodthorpe and Lockwood’s study and found WC lifestyles and norms had not changed as much as they suggested.

Her sample didn't have purely privatised and home centred lifestyles and social relationships.

She rejected the idea the ‘new working class’ would be persuaded to accept capitalism uncritically, and found many interviewees still resented the privileges of inherited wealth.

Their aspirations and social and political values weren't solely individualistic as was predicted - there was evidence of solidarity. (However it was not as communal as the traditional WC).

What is sex?

Biological differences between men and women, physical characteristics ascribed at birth.

What is gender?

Different social practices, expectations and norms associated with masculinity and femininity.

What do feminists argue about gender and inequality?

Differences in gender aren't neutral.

Masculinity is given a higher status than femininity leading to inequality in society.

Feminists argue the world is in ways that benefit men and disadvantage women - this is patriarchy.

Men have considerably more power within politics and the workplace.

Men generally have a bigger share of rewards, eg wealth and status.

What are Sylvia Walby’s 6 interacting structures of patriarchy?

1. Paid employment - women earn less than men, and are excluded from better types of paid work.

2. The household - husbands and partner exploit women by benefiting from their unpayed labour in the home.

3. Culture - culture differentiates between masculinity and femininity (which is being sexually attractive to men)

4. Sexuality - the double standard is an aspect of male dominance. (eg. Sexually attractive men and women are treated differently.)

5. Male violence against women - affects women’s actions, is a form of power over them.

6. The state - state policies are biased towards patriarchal interests . There's been little effort to improve women’s position in the public sphere, such as the workplace.

What laws have attempted to reduce gender inequality?

The equal pay act, 1970 - employers must pay men and women the same amount when they're doing the same work, or work of equal value.

The sex discrimination act, 1975 - unlawful to discriminate against someone because of their gender.

What is the glass ceiling?

An invisible barrier to promotion faced by some groups including women.

What is the gender pay gap?

How women on average earn less than men.

What are some explanations for the gender pay gap?

• Women are concentrated into jobs that pay less (such as humanity based subjects)

• Women have children and have to take time off for maternity leave.

Why are women more likely to be in poverty than men?

• More likely to lead lone parent families, which often have low incomes.

• Gender pay gap - more likely to be in low paying employment

• Women are more likely to work in part time employment

What is intra generational social mobility?

Movement between social strata in an individual’s life - measured from 2 (or more) points in their life.

What is inter-generational social mobility?

Movement between social classes between generations, when an individual enters a different social class han their parents.

What is social closure?

Preventing social mobility.

What did Scott argue?

Education doesn't seem to matter much when determining occupational success.

Class structures are self reproducing.

What are some reasons for the decline in social mobility?

1. Economic Factors: Persistent income inequality can hinder opportunities for upward mobility.

2. Education: Disparities in education quality and access continue to affect social mobility.

3. Employment Opportunities: A shrinking job market and preference for higher qualifications is restrictive.

4. Social Networks: The importance of familial and social connections.

What is ethnicity?

A group whose members share an identity based on their cultural traditions, religion, and language.

What is race?

Physical differences and refers to the idea humans can be divided into ‘racial groups.’

Sociologists believe race is socially constructed.

What is assimilation?

Th view immigrants should abandon their own culture in the favour of the majority.

What is multiculturalism?

A country which has many different cultures.

Describe some statistics on ethnicity and power.

The ONS indicates 10% of the UK population were from minority ethnic backgrounds in 2015.

In 2015, 7% of civil servants were from minority ethnic backgrounds.

Describe Wood et al’s study on employment. (2010)

They sent job applications to 1,000 jobs.

For each job, they sent applications for what appeared to be a white candidate, and two from minority ethnic groups.

Only 1 in 16 ethnic minority applications were offered interviews interviews, compared to 1 in 9 white applications.

What is stigma?

The social shame or disgrace attached to something by society.

For example, cohabitation in the 1950s.

What does Tyler (2013) suggest?

That in the current global climate of economic insecurity and terrorist threats, public anxieties ad hostilities have been channelled towards groups such as the unemployed, homeless, elderly and sick people.

Describe employment and pay, and how this affects minority ethnic groups.

People from minority ethnic groups re more likely to be concentrated in lower paying jobs due to discrimination in the job market.

Their research indicated those in BAME groups and in managerial roles earned 25% less than whites.

What is the equal pay act?

1970

States employers must pay men and women the same amount when they are doing the same work, or work of equal value.

How has socialisation led to men and women aspiring to different jobs?

Canalisation - channelled into having different personality traits that are more suited to different types of jobs.

Verbal appellation - parents use different language to reinforce gender roles - boys are strong, confident.

Government attempts to reduce poverty - what are selective benefits?

They target those in the greatest financial need on the basis of the means test.

Means testing determines whether someone is eligible to receive aid, and how much they are eligible for, based on their income and savings.

Why is means testing criticised?

It is argued to trap people in poverty.

This is because an increase in income may reduce the benefits people are entitled for, but with their new wage they may not be better off.

This is sometimes called the ‘poverty trap.’

Furthermore, people in poverty may not claim benefits because the process is too complex or intrusive.

Government attempts to reduce poverty - what are universal benefits?

Are not means tested, and are less likely to stigmatize recipients.

People with an income of over 50,000 may have to pay a tax charge for claiming benefits, so many have opted out of it.

Describe other government attempts to reduce poverty.

The minimum wage.

The national living wage.

Universal benefits.

Selective benefits.

What is the welfare state?

A system in which the state takes responsibility for protecting the health and welfare of its citizens, and for meeting their social needs.

What is ageism?

Aka age discrimination.

Where a person is treated differently and less favourably based on their age.

Younger and older people are the most vulnerable to this.

Describe an example of ageism.

People in their fifties and sixties often find it harder to get a job than others as some employers hold stereotypes about their ability to learn new skills.

How has the government attempted to reduce ageism?

The Employment Equality (Age) Regulations of 2006, which provide regulations against age discrimination in employment and training.

What may age discrimination also be caused by?

It may be linked to other social divisions based on gender, ethnicity and class.

How is power excercised over students at schools?

Teachers have formal authority over students and can legitimately tell students to do certain things, such as form an orderly queue.

They may also excercised a form of authority based on their charisma. Suh teachers can be seen as exceptional individuals who inspire their students.

However some students forma deviant subculture and reject authority.

Which sociologist’ findings possess Marx's view about school socialising students into being obedient workers?

Paul WIllis’ study on boys and deviant subcultures.

His study shows even though a group of children were subjected to the same forms of control as others, they still resisted authority and rejected school values.

Could suggest the power of schools in socialising students is not as profound as Marx implies.

What does Parsons say about childhood?

Childhood is a necessary stage of socialisation.

Adolescence is a period when young people start to break away from their parents and focus on their own relationships.

What does Parsons say about adulthood?

It's the stage of being productive for society and having children.

Success and achievement during this period is based on meritocracy.

What does Parsons say about old age?

It involves a period of disengagement, which is beneficial for society (eg. Leaving jobs so more are available for younger people).

This is known as Parsons’ disengagement theory.

What are criticisms of Parsons’ disengagement theory.

Older people may not want to disengage.

Some people may be unable to disengage for financial reasons or responsibilities.

It may be harmful for society - can waste talent and experience.

It ignores and undervalues the roles the elderly play.

What does sociologist Gannon suggest about women and ageing?

Ageing affects women more severely than men.

They are more likely to face poverty and health impacts.

They are more likely to be judged negatively on appearance.

What does sociologist vincent argue?

Old age is often linked to material deprivation, especially for working class women.

This is de to the fact that state pensions have declined in recent years, and women live longer, so rely on pensions for a greater amount of time.

Women usually earn less, so have to live of a smaller amount of money for a longer period of time.

What is absolute poverty?

An individual’s ability to satisfy even basic needs for food, clothing and shelter.

It helps provide a better view of which countries need more aid and alleviate poverty. It is an objective measure, such as if you have a house.

It is not useful to solely use in NEEs or HICs as the vast majority of the population are surviving with basic necessities, but still suffering from deprivation and inequality.

What is relative poverty? Include pros and cons.

Refers to individuals whose standard of life falls well be low that of the majority of the population.

It helps provide a better view of which groups need more aid and alleviate poverty.

However it is subjective - how do you measure the standard quality of life in a country?

What do Walker and Walker (1997) argue?

They argue the definiton of poverty chosen by the state is crucial.

It determines how far the government accepts poverty exists, what policies are adopted to tackle poverty, and how those experiencing poverty are treated.

If an absolute definition of poverty was used, the role of government and number of resources needed would be more limited than if a relative definition was used.

What are cultural explanations of causes of poverty?

They focus on the behaviour and attitudes of the poor.

They are often criticised as being victim blaming.

Uses the culture of poverty: suggests the poor are different from the rest of society, and that they have a distinct and different culture.

Children are socialised into this culture, remaining poor because their values inhibit their own opportunities for social mobility.

Describe Sugarman’s views? (Cultural explanations for poverty).

He suggests MC and WC have different values. These are passed on from parents to children.

The MC have control over life, future time orientation, deferred gratification and individualsim.

The WC have fatalistic attitudes, present time orientation, instant gratification and collectivism.

What are criticisms of cultural explanations for poverty?

The WC have such values because they have to focus on the present - eg. Paying the monthly bills.

They don't have these values out of choice.

What are material explanations for the causes of poverty?

They blame inadequacy of welfare and unequal class structure of society on capitalist society.

Any cultural values are a response to poverty, not the cause.

They highlight the existence of the poverty trap - the poor are unable to alleviate their position as they don't possess the means.

Describe Peter Townsend’s study on poverty. (His sample, time he did it, etc.)

He carried out a number of studies of poverty.

During the 1960s and 70s he had a huge impact on highlighting poverty.

His research on ‘poverty in the United kindom’ was based on a social survey using questionnaires.

In 1968/9 his researchers collected information on 2,502 households, containing 6,098 individuals.

What was Townsend’s definition of poverty?

Individuals, families and groups in the population can be said to be in poverty when they lack the resources to obtain the types of diet, participate in the activities and have the living conditions and amenities which are customary, or at least widely encouraged or approved, in the societies to which they belong.

What did Townsend believe about relative poverty and society?

Poverty can be defined objectively and applied consistently only in terms of the concept of relative deprivation.

Society determines and conditions people’s needs.

Society also determines what types of food is available and influences patterns of food consumption through its culture.

For instance, tea is closely tied up with British lifestyle.

Townsend describes how tea is nutritionally worthless, but ‘psychologically and socially essential’ in Britain.

E argued poverty prevents social participation in activities deemed normal, such as having birthday parties for children.

What did Townsend devise to put his definiton of poverty into operation?

The deprivation index, which covered 60 types of deprivation relationg to to diet, fuel, lighting, etc.

From this original list, he selected 12 items he believed would be relevant to the whole of the population and calculate the percentage of the population deprived of them.

What did Townsend find in his study on poverty? (1979)

23% of the population was living in poverty in 1968/9.

The state standard was 6.1%.

What are some criticisms of Townsend’s study?

Piachaud argued his deprivation index that his statistics were based on was inadequate.

He stated with items in the index, it was it wasn't clear what they had to do with poverty or how they were selected, such as not eating fresh meat.

What are life chances?

They refer to peoples chances of having positive or negative outcomes (such as being healthy or ill) over their lifetime in relation to, for example, education, housing and employment.

Life chances are unequally distributed between groups because they are affected by factors such as class position, gender and ethnicity.

What do feminists view about inequalities based on gender (and how this affects their life chances).

Despite new legislation aimed at targeting gender inequality (such as the equality act, 2010) many feminists still argue gender is a key division in society.

For example, the gender pay gap persists because women are more likely than men to work in low-paid and part-time jobs.

Women are held back by a glass ceiling which acts as an invisible barrier to promotion.

Explnations for the persistence of gender inequalitites at work include sex discrimination in the workplace, women's triple shift, and inadequate childcare provision.

What are the New Right’s key beliefs?

The New Right explanation of poverty is similar to the cultural explanation of cycle of deprivation and the culture of poverty.

They focus on individual rather than structural inequality.

The government should interfere less in peoples lives.

They believe meake people make rational, cost / benefit choices.

What does Murray mean by the ‘underclass’?

Murray argues that a change in attitude about poor people has led to a growing group of problematic people in society.

This group is characterised by high rates of:

-Children born to single or unmarried women

-Unemployment

-Crime and juvenile delinquency

He argues the group is characterised by their behaviour, not their material situation.

What does Murray believe has caused the underclass?

Welfare payments acting as perverse incentives (a policy which intends to produce positive results but has the counter effect).

It is possible for women to comfortably have children without being married.

Children aren't properly socialised.

Unemployed men and absent fathers make poor role models.

Punishments for crime are not certain enough.

What is the evaluation of Murray’s (and general New Right) views?

There is little evidence that there's a difference in values and attitudes - many in poverty have convetional attitudes.

Labelling people as the ‘underclass’ stigmatises them, and is ‘victim blaming’ - his ideas have been associated with eugenics and racism.

Most lone parents eventually marry - the highest expenditure on lone parents is divorced mothers, not ‘socially irresponsible’ mothers.

Murray’s solution of locally managed welfare systems may not be an improvement.

What does Murray say the underclass is characterised by?

Defined by their behaviour.

Their homes were littered and unkempt.

The men in the family were unable to hold a job for more than a few weeks at a time.

Drunkeness was common.

Children grew up ill-schooled and ill-behaved, and contributed a disproportionate share of the local juvenile delinquents.

What does Murray say the three ways of identifying the underclass are (from his work in the US)?

Illegitimacy, violent crime, drop-out from the labour force.

Why does Murray believe lone parent (especially fatherless) families are problems?

Children grow up making sense of the world in terms of their own experiences.

Boys without fathers don't know how to be a good father.

In communities without fathers, kids tend to run wild. The fewer the fathers, the greater the tendency.