🧠 Ch. 8 Cognition and Problem Solving

Cognition

The mental activities we use to think, learn, and understand.

Example:Thinking about how to solve a puzzle or plan your day.

Mental Representation

A symbol in your mind that stands for something in the real world.

Example:Picturing your house when someone says “home.”

Concept

A mental grouping of similar things.

Example: The concept “fruit” includes apples, bananas, and oranges.

Prototype

The most typical example of a category.

Example: A robin is a “typical” bird, but a penguin is not.

Category Levels

Concepts are organized hierarchically:

Superordinate

Most general (e.g., Animal)

Basic

Most common (e.g., Dog)

Subordinate

Most specific (e.g., Golden Retriever)

Trial and Error

Trying different solutions until one works.

Example: Plugging in different phone chargers until one fits.

Algorithm

A step-by-step method that guarantees a solution.

Example: Following a recipe to bake cookies.

Mental Set

Using a past successful strategy to solve a new problem.

Example: Always restarting your laptop when it freezes — even if it doesn’t fix the new issue.

Functional Fixedness

Can’t see new uses for objects beyond their normal function.

Example:Not realizing you can use a coin as a screwdriver.

Bounded Rationality

Decisions are rational but limited by our mental abilities.

Example: Choosing a college major without knowing all the possible careers.

Heuristic

A quick rule-of-thumb for making fast decisions.

Example: “Go with your gut” or “buy the familiar brand.”

Representativeness Heuristic

Judging something based on how well it matches a prototype.

Example: Assuming someone wearing glasses is “smart.”

Availability Heuristic

Judging how common something is by how easily examples come to mind.

Example:Thinking plane crashes happen often because you saw one on the news.

Affect Heuristic

Making a decision based on your feelings or gut reaction.

Example: Picking a college because it “just feels right.”

Framing

How a choice is presented affects how we decide.

Example: You’re more likely to buy meat labeled “90% lean” than “10% fat.”

🗣️ Language

Language

A structured system of symbols and rules used for communication.

Phonemes

Basic speech sounds.

Example: The “b” in “bat” or the “th” in “that.”

Morphemes

Smallest unit of meaning.

Example: “Dogs” has two morphemes — “dog” and “-s.”

Grammar

Rules for how words and sentences are put together.

Example: Knowing that “The cat sat on the mat” is correct, not “Cat the on mat sat.”

Syntax

Rules for word order.

Example: In English we say “red car,” not “car red.”

Pragmatics

Rules for using language in social contexts.

Example: Talking differently to your teacher than to your best friend.

Linguistic Determinism (Whorfian Hypothesis)

Language shapes how we think and see the world.

Example: People with more words for snow (like the Inuit) can notice more snow types.

Cooing

Early vowel-like sounds from infants (2–4 months).

Babbling

Repeating consonant-vowel sounds.

Example: “Da-da-da” or “ba-ba-ba.”

Holophrase

One word expressing a whole idea.

Example: Saying “milk” to mean “I want milk.”

Overregularization

Applying grammar rules too widely.

Example: Saying “I goed” instead of “I went.”

Overextension

Using one word for many things.

Example: Calling all four-legged animals “dog.”

Sensitive Period

Early window when the brain best learns language.

Example: It’s easier to learn a second language as a child than as an adult.

Chomsky’s Nativist Theory

Humans are born with a built-in Language Acquisition Device (LAD).

Example: Kids learn grammar naturally without formal lessons.

Cognitive Theory (General Cognitive Ability)

Language is learned through general learning and pattern recognition (like statistical learning – Saffran).

Example: Babies notice patterns like “ba” often followed by “by.”

💡 Intelligence

Ability to learn, reason, and solve problems effectively.

General Intelligence (g)

A single factor that influences performance on all mental tasks.

Example: Doing well in math often means you do well in reading too.

Fluid Intelligence

Ability to think logically and solve new problems.

Example: Solving a puzzle you’ve never seen before.

Crystallized Intelligence

Accumulated knowledge and verbal skills.

Example: Knowing the capital of France or vocabulary words.

Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory

Three kinds of intelligence:

(1) Analytical

Problem-solving (doing well on tests).

(2) Creative

Coming up with new ideas (writing a song).

(3) Practical

Everyday “street smarts” (fixing a flat tire).

Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences

People have several distinct types of intelligence.

Example: Someone might be strong in music or movement, not just academics.

Stanford-Binet Test

Early IQ test to identify children needing extra help.

Achievement Test

Measures what you’ve already learned.

Example: A unit test in school.

Aptitude Test

Measures potential to learn new skills.

Example: The SAT predicts college performance.

Weschler (WAIS)

Common adult IQ test with multiple tasks.

Example: Includes vocabulary, math, and reasoning sections.

Heritability

How much differences in intelligence are due to genes.

Example: Twin studies show IQ is partly genetic.

Enrichment

Stimulating environments boost intelligence development.

Example: Reading to children increases cognitive growth.

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

Expectations influence behavior to make them come true.

Example: Teachers who expect students to succeed often see higher grades.

Mindset

Attitudes about intelligence and ability.

Fixed Mindset

Intelligence is unchangeable.

Example:“I’m just bad at math — I’ll never get better.”

Growth Mindset

Intelligence can be developed with effort.

Example: “If I study and practice, I can improve.”