Nutrition Midterm 1

summer course notes

Macronutrients

Nutrients the body needs in large amounts that provide energy (except water).Fat = 9 cal/g; Carbohydrates = 4 cal/g; Protein = 4 cal/g

Organic Molecule

A molecule primarily containing carbon and hydrogen (often oxygen and nitrogen as well).

Hydrophilic

"Water-loving"; mixes or interacts well with water.

Hydrophobic

• "Water-fearing"; does not mix with water.

Polar Molecule

A molecule with slightly positive and slightly negative regions, allowing hydrogen bonding.

Hydrogen Bond

Weak attraction between polar molecules (especially water molecules).

Lipid (Fat)

Hydrophobic, nonpolar macronutrient that stores the most energy.

Saturated Fat

No double bonds; straight structure; packs tightly; solid at room temperature.

Unsaturated Fat

One or more double bonds; bent ("kinked"); liquid at room temperature; oxidizes more easily.

Emulsifier

• Molecule with hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions that allows fat and water to mix.

Freezing/Melting Point

Temperature where a substance is 50% solid and 50% liquid.

Boiling Point

Temperature where a liquid changes into a gas.

Monosaccharide

Single sugar molecule (ex: glucose).

Disaccharide

Two sugars joined together (ex: sucrose).

Polysaccharide

Long chain of glucose molecules.

Starch

Digestible plant polysaccharide.

Fiber

Indigestible plant polysaccharide.

Glycogen

Animal storage form of carbohydrate.

High-Fructose Corn Syrup

Sweetener produced by enzymatically converting corn starch into glucose and fructose.

Fructose

Sugar primarily metabolized by the liver.

Glycolysis

• Process that breaks glucose into pyruvate while producing 2 ATP.

Amino Acid

Basic building block of proteins.

R-Group

Variable portion of an amino acid that determines its properties.

Structural Protein

Gives cells and tissues strength and support.

Enzyme

Protein that speeds up/executes chemical reactions.

Signaling Protein

Protein that communicates between cells (example: insulin).

Carrier (Transport) Protein

Protein that transports molecules (example: hemoglobin).

Primary Structure

Sequence of amino acids.

Secondary Structure

Local folding of the amino acid chain.

Tertiary Structure

Final three-dimensional shape of one protein.

Quaternary Structure

Protein formed from multiple folded protein chains.

Protein Denaturation

Loss of a protein's functional shape caused by heat, acid, or mechanical force.

Coagulation

Denatured proteins sticking together to form a solid mass.

Micronutrients

Nutrients that do not provide energy (vitamins and minerals).

Coenzyme

Molecule required for certain enzymes to function.

Vitamin B

• Helps convert carbohydrates, fats, and proteins into energy.

Vitamin C

Antioxidant that improves absorption of non-heme iron.

Vitamin D

Increases calcium absorption.

Vitamin E

Antioxidant that protects fat molecules.

Mineral

Inorganic nutrient derived from the earth.

Iron (Fe²⁺)

Needed for oxygen transport.

Calcium

Needed for bones and muscle contraction.

Oxidation

Loss of electrons or increase in oxidation state.

Reduction

Gain of electrons or decrease in oxidation state.

Redox Reaction

Oxidation and reduction occurring simultaneously. Important for chemical stability

Antioxidant

Molecule that prevents oxidation by sacrificing itself.

Free Radical

Highly reactive unstable molecule that damages fats, proteins, and DNA.

ATP

Cell's usable energy molecule.

Microbe

Microscopic organism.

Yeast

Single-celled fungus.

Mold

Multicellular fungus.

Lactic Acid Bacteria

Bacteria that convert lactose into lactic acid.

Acetic Acid Bacteria

Bacteria that convert alcohol into vinegar.

Aerobic

Requires oxygen.

Anaerobic

Occurs without oxygen.

Metabolism

All chemical reactions used to obtain and use energy.

Aerobic Metabolism

Uses oxygen and produces about 32 ATP per glucose.

Anaerobic Metabolism

• Occurs without oxygen and produces 2 ATP (from glycolysis).

Fermentation

Process after glycolysis that regenerates NAD⁺ so glycolysis can continue; produces no additional ATP.

Alcoholic Fermentation

Anaerobic; produces ethanol and carbon dioxide.

Lactic Acid Fermentation

Anaerobic; produces lactic acid.

Oxidative Fermentation

Aerobic; converts ethanol into acetic acid (vinegar).

Beta-Oxidation

Breaks fat into acetyl-CoA.

Citric Acid Cycle

Produces electron carriers used to make ATP.

Oxidative Phosphorylation

Produces most ATP during aerobic metabolism.

Acetyl-CoA

Molecule that enters the Citric Acid Cycle.

Gluconeogenesis

Production of glucose from non-carbohydrate sources (such as amino acids).

Malting

Germinating grains so enzymes break starch into sugar.

Koji

Mold that breaks starch into sugar in rice alcohol production.

Lactase

Enzyme that digests lactose.

Dry Wine

Wine with very little residual sugar.

Sweet Wine

Wine with higher residual sugar because fermentation stopped early or sugar was added afterward.