Physiological Psychology

Hormones

chemical messengers of the endocrine system

Endocrine System

Body communication system

Glands and hormones

Sexual arousal and reproduction

pituitary gland

regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands.

Parts of the pituitary gland

anterior and posterior

anterior pituitary

makes and releases hormones under regulation of the hypothalamus

androgens

male hormones

testosterone

male sex hormone

androgen-insensitivity syndrome

A condition caused by a congenital lack of functioning androgen receptors; in a person with XY sex chromosomes, causes the development of a female with testes but no internal sex organs

gonadotropic hormones (gonadotropins)

Hormones that affect the sex organs and trigger puberty

Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)

stimulates growth of ovarian follicle (protective egg layer)

luteinizing hormone (LH)

promotes ovulation

Estrogen

Female sex hormone

proesterone

prepares uterus for fertilized egg

neuropsychology

The study of functions and behaviors associated with specific regions of the brain.

ablation (extirpation)

any surgically induced brain lesion

stereotaxic instrument

a device for the precise placement of electrodes in the brain

Wilder Penfield

1st to do brain mapping using electrical stimulation and recording

David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel

discovered feature detector groups of neurons in the visual cortex that respond to different types of visual images

Electroencephalograph (EEG)

measures electrical activity in the brain

regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF)

detects neural activity based on increased blood flow to different parts of the brain

A.R. Luria

Studied how brain damage leads to impairment in sensory, motor, and language functions

Agnosia

the inability to recognize familiar objects

Damage to cortical area

Apraxia

impaired ability to carry out motor activities despite intact motor function

Damage to association areas near the motor cortex

Reticular Formation

Neural structure in brainstem that keeps cortex awake and alert

circadian rhythms

The 24-hour wake-sleep cycle

4 types of brain waves

alpha, beta, theta, delta (BAT-D)

Beta waves

smaller and faster brain waves, typically indicating mental activity

Alpha waves

the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state

Theta waves

brain waves indicating the early stages of sleep

Delta waves

long, slow waves that indicate the deepest stage of sleep

Sleep stage 1

Sleep spindles and slower frequency alpha waves

Sleep stage 2

theta waves, sleep spindles, K complexes

Sleep stage 3

delta waves

Sleep stage 4

The deepest sleep state, slowest Delta waves, steepest sleep spindles

rapid eye movement (REM)

eyes move rapidly under the eyelids and the person is typically experiencing a dream

REM rebound

the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation

Insomnia

recurring problems in falling or staying asleep

Narcolepsy

uncontrollable sleep attacks

Sleep apnea

breathing stops for brief periods while asleep

James-Lange Theory

the theory that our experience of emotion is our awareness of our physiological responses to emotion-arousing stimuli

Emphasizes role of peripheral nervous system

Cannon-Bard Theory

The theory that awareness of emotion reflects the physiological arousal of the cognitive experience of emotion

Bodily changes and emotional feelings occur simultaneously

Emphasizes role of sympathetic nervous system

Subjective experience of emotion must affect specific neural circuits

Two-Factory theory of emotion (Schachter-Singer theory)

Individuals assessment of the situation determines the interpretated emotion

Subjective experience of emotion based on interaction between changes in physiological arousal and cognitive interpretation of that arousal

Neural conduction within neurons

Electrical process

Neural transmission between neurons

Chemical process

Resting potential

the state of the neuron when not firing a neural impulse

Slight negative charge in membrane

Cell membrane

Thin layer of fatty molecules between inside and outside of neuron

Semipermeable

membranes that allow some substances through but not others

Ions

positively and negatively charged atoms

Polarized

net negative charge of a neuron

Sodium-Potassium Pump

To maintain resting potential, a cell must pump sodium ions (+) out to accept potassium ions (-)

4 stages of action potential

resting state, depolarization, action potential spike (repolarization), hyperpolarization

resting potential (polarization)

The resting state of a neuron

Depolarization

The process during the action potential when sodium is rushing into the cell causing the interior to become more positive.

"firing of the neuron"

Action potential spike

a rapid reversal of the membrane potential that momentarily makes the inside of the membrane positive. Caused by rush of positive sodium ions entering membrane

Repolarization

Return of the cell to resting state, caused by reentry of potassium into the cell while sodium exits the cell.

Hyperpolarization

membrane potential becomes more negative

Refractory Period

the time following an action potential during which a new action potential cannot be initiated; neuron cannot fire

Stages of refractory period

absolute refractory period and relative refractory period

absolute refractory period

the period immediately following the firing of a neuron when it cannot be stimulated no matter how great a stimulus is applied

relative refractory period

a stronger than usual stimulus is necessary to initiate an action potential

All-or-nothing law

when depolarization reaches the critical threshold (-50 mV), the neuron will fire each and every time

Axon hillock

Cone shaped region of an axon where it joins the cell body.

Saltatory conduction

efficient conduction along myelinated neuron

Nodes of Ranvier

gaps in the myelin sheath

Presynaptic membrane

the membrane of a terminal button next to the synapse. Where a neurotransmitter is released

Vesicles

Tiny sacks in presynaptic membrane that stores and releases neurotransmitters

Postsynaptic membrane

The membrane of the dendrites next to the synapse. Where a neurotransmitter is received

Receptors

parts of the cell membrane that receive the neurotransmitter and initiate or prevent a new electric signal

3 Things that can happen to neurotransmitters in synapse

1. Attach to receptors

2. Remain in synapse to be destroyed and washed away

3. Reuptake

Reuptake

a neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron

Binding

Neurotransmitters bind themselves to sites on receiving (postsynaptic) neuron's membrane

Only certain transmitters can fit with certain receptors (lock and key)

Synapse and drugs

behavior-changing drugs (prescription and recreational) act on synaptic transmission

excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP)

A postsynaptic potential that makes the neuron more likely to fire an action potential.

inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP)

a postsynaptic potential that makes the neuron less likely to fire an action potential

Graded potentials

small changes in membrane potential that vary by intensity of stimulus

Eric Kandel

Studied habituation in snails reflexes to being touched on the gills. Discovered neurons governing gill-withdrawl reflex released smaller amount of neurotransmitters than before

Habituation

decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation

Acetylcholine

A neurotransmitter that enables learning and memory and triggers muscle contraction

Loss of acetylcholine in hippocampus = Alzheimer's disease

Monoamines

dopamine, norepinephrine, serotonin

Catecholamines

neurotransmitters that play an important role in emotions

dopamine, epinephrine, norepinephrine

Norepinephrine

helps control alertness and arousal; undersupply can depress mood; oversupply can cause mania

Dopamine

A neurotransmitter associated with movement, attention and learning and the brain's pleasure and reward system.

Found in basal ganglia

dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia

argues that delusions, hallucinations, and agitation associated with schizophrenia arise from either too much dopamine or from oversensitivity to dopamine in the brain

Parkinson's disease

loss of dopamine-sensitive neurons in basal ganglia

tardive dyskinesia

A side effect of long-term use of traditional antipsychotic drugs causing motor disturbances resembling Parkinson's disease

L-Dopa

Parkinson's drug that can be turned into dopamine once it reaches the brain

Can cause psychotic symptoms

Serotonin

Affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal

undersupply can depress mood; oversupply can cause mania

Monomine theory of depression

Links theories that for both serotonin and norepinephrine undersupply can depress mood; oversupply can cause mania

GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)

stabilizes neural activity in brain

Peptides

Chains of amino acids

neuromodulators/neuropeptides

peptides that are involved in neurotransmission creating a slower yet longer effect on the postsynaptic cell

endorphines and enkephalins

act as natural painkillers

sedative-hypnotics (depressants)

Group of drugs that depress the activities of the central nervous system

Synergistic effect

interaction of two or more medicines that results in a greater effect than when the medicines are taken alone

Benzodiazepines

drugs that lower anxiety and reduce stress

Enhances GABA

sedative-hypnotic

Barbiturates

drugs that lower anxiety and are used as sedatives

Enhances GABA

sedative-hypnotic

Alcohol

Common sedative-hypnotic

Korsakoff's syndrome

Nutritional deficiency of vitamin B1, which results in a deficit in the ability to recall recent events. Often due to severe alcoholism.

Behavioral stimulants

A class of drugs that increase behavioral activity by increasing motor activity or by counteracting fatigue

Amphetamines

drugs that stimulate neural activity, causing sped-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes

Behavioral stimulant