A&P: Full (NotebookLM)

What are the three main conditions the body strives to keep constant through homeostasis?

"Temperature, water, and fuel."

What type of feedback regulation maintains a set point by counteracting changes?

Negative feedback regulation.

"In temperature regulation what is the body's response to warming?"

"Smooth muscle relaxation dilates skin blood vessels, and sweat gland activation causes cooling."

What hormone is released by the pituitary gland to signal the kidneys to reabsorb water when blood osmolarity is high?

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH).

How does the body respond to a lower blood pH caused by increased CO2 during exercise?

It increases heart rate and breathing rate to bring blood to the lungs faster and exhale CO2.

"What type of feedback regulation temporarily amplifies changes overriding a set point?",

Positive feedback regulation.

"In the positive feedback example of blood vessel repair what do platelets adhere to and release?",

They adhere to exposed collagen and release additional signaling factors to recruit more platelets.

The axial skeleton is composed of which three main parts?

"The skull, the vertebral column, and the bony thorax."

"The skull consists of 22 bones which are divided into what two functional groups?"

Cranial bones and facial bones.

Which cranial bone is the deepest and contains passages for the olfactory nerves?

The ethmoid bone.

Which is the only bone in the body not connected to another bone?

The hyoid bone.

The adult vertebral column consists of 26 bones divided into which five regions?

"Cervical (7), Thoracic (12), Lumbar (5), Sacrum (1-fused), and Coccyx (1-fused)."

What is the name for the atypical lateral curvature of the spine?

Scoliosis.

The C1 vertebra is known as 'the atlas' and is responsible for what type of head movement?

Up/down flexion (nodding 'yes').

"The C2 vertebra known as 'the axis', has a knob-like dens that allows for what type of head movement?"

Left/right rotation (shaking 'no').

What are the three components of the sternum?

"The manubrium, body, and xiphoid process."

Ribs 1-7 are called _____ ribs because they attach directly to the sternum.

true

The appendicular skeleton consists of the limbs and what two girdles?

The shoulder girdle and the pelvic girdle.

The shoulder girdle is composed of which two bones?

The clavicle and the scapula.

The forearm is composed of which two parallel bones?

The radius and the ulna.

The hand consists of which three groups of bones?

"The carpus (wrist), metacarpus (palm), and phalanges (fingers)."

What is the primary trade-off of the pelvic girdle's strong and stable structure?

It has less mobility compared to the shoulder girdle.

"What is the single long bone of the thigh known as the most significant bone in the body?"

The femur.

"The arches of the foot help conserve energy during gait and distribute weight supported by interlocking bone shapes and strong _____."

ligaments

"Anatomy is the study of _____ while physiology is the study of _____."

structure; function

What are the three major functions of blood?

"Distribution, regulation, and protection."

What component makes up 55% of whole blood and is mostly water?

Plasma.

What is the primary function of erythrocytes (red blood cells)?

"To deliver oxygen, which is maximized by their biconcave disc shape and lack of organelles."

The protein responsible for oxygen transport in red blood cells is called _____.

hemoglobin

What is the primary role of leukocytes (white blood cells)?

To provide an immune response; they are complete cells that can travel outside the bloodstream.

Platelets are small cytoplasmic fragments of what large cell?

Megakaryocyte.

"What is the final product of blood coagulation which forms a mesh to seal a vessel?"

Fibrin.

Intramembranous ossification is the process that builds which bones of the body?

The flat cranial bones.

The process where bone is deposited by osteoblasts and resorbed by osteoclasts is called _____.

bone remodeling

What hormone is released by the parathyroid glands when blood calcium is low?

Parathyroid hormone (PTH).

"What is the role of calcitonin released by the thyroid gland, in calcium homeostasis?"

It promotes calcium deposition in bone and excretion by the kidneys when blood calcium is high.

"A decrease in estrogen often associated with aging, favors the activity of which bone cells, potentially leading to osteoporosis?",

Osteoclasts.

What is the key structural difference between arteries and veins that helps veins return blood to the heart under low pressure?

Veins have valves to prevent the backflow of blood.

"Which type of blood vessel has the thinnest walls consisting of a single layer to facilitate gas and substance exchange?"

Capillaries.

"What are the three layers of the wall of an artery or vein from innermost to outermost?"

"Tunica interna, tunica media, and tunica externa."

"The largest and most elastic arteries such as the aorta, are known as _____ arteries."

conducting

"What are the three types of capillaries distinguished by their varying levels of permeability?"

"Continuous, fenestrated, and sinusoidal."

"The pressure gradient which is the difference in pressure across the circulatory system, keeps blood moving from an area of _____ pressure (heart) to _____ pressure (body)."

high; low

"Slow long-term adjustments to blood pressure are primarily managed by the renal regulation of what?"

Blood volume.

What is the term for poor blood circulation resulting from extreme vasodilation and low pressure?

Vascular shock.

The digestive process that involves enzymatic actions to break down food is known as _____ digestion.

chemical

"What are the four layers of the alimentary canal wall from the innermost layer outward?"

"Mucosa, submucosa, muscularis externa, and serosa."

"The involuntary phase of swallowing where peristalsis moves the bolus down the esophagus, is called the _____ phase."

pharyngeal-esophageal

Which stomach cells secrete HCl and intrinsic factor?

Parietal cells.

Which stomach cells secrete pepsinogen?

Chief cells.

What are the three sections of the small intestine in order?

"Duodenum, jejunum, and ileum."

What is the primary function of the large intestine?

Water absorption.

"What substance produced by the liver and stored in the gallbladder, emulsifies fats to aid in their digestion?"

Bile salts.

"Lipid-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K) are absorbed into the cells of the small intestine along with what other nutrient class?"

Lipids.

How does the endocrine system's regulation via hormones differ from the nervous system's regulation via electrochemical impulses?

The endocrine system is slower to initiate but its effects are longer-lived.

"Water-soluble peptide hormones bind to _____ while lipid-soluble steroid hormones bind to _____."

cell surface receptors; nuclear receptors

What are the three types of stimuli that can trigger hormone release?

"Humoral (blood ions/nutrients), neural, and hormonal."

The posterior pituitary stores and releases two hormones made by the hypothalamus: oxytocin and _____.

ADH (Antidiuretic hormone)

"The anterior pituitary produces tropic hormones such as TSH, which stimulates which gland?",

The thyroid gland.

A major function of the thyroid hormone (T4/T3) is to stimulate _____ processes in most body tissues.

metabolic

What is the primary function of parathyroid hormone (PTH)?

To increase blood calcium levels.

"The adrenal cortex produces hormones for long-term stress responses including _____ which increases kidney retention of sodium and water."

aldosterone

The alpha cells of the pancreas secrete _____ in a fasting state to raise blood glucose.

glucagon

The beta cells of the pancreas secrete _____ in a fed state to lower blood glucose.

insulin

"Unlike skeletal muscle cardiac muscle can contract without neuronal stimulation due to the presence of _____ cells."

autorhythmic

"On an ECG what does the P wave represent?",

Activation (depolarization) of the atria.

"On an ECG what does the QRS complex represent?"

Activation (depolarization) of the ventricles.

"The first heart sound 'lub', is caused by the closing of which valves?"

The AV (atrioventricular) valves.

"The second heart sound 'dub', is caused by the closing of which valves?"

The SL (semilunar) valves.

The period of ventricular contraction and blood ejection is known as _____.

systole

What is the formula for calculating Cardiac Output (CO)?

CO = Heart Rate (HR) x Stroke Volume (SV).

"The nervous system regulates heart rate with _____ released by stressors to increase the rate and _____ released during calm to decrease it."

norepinephrine; acetylcholine

What term describes the back pressure from arterial blood that the ventricles must overcome to eject blood?

Afterload.

"What heart condition is characterized by the buildup of fatty deposits in coronary vessels impairing blood and oxygen delivery to the heart?"

Coronary atherosclerosis.

What are the four main cell types of the epidermis?

"Keratinocytes, melanocytes, Langerhans cells, and Merkel cells."

"From deep to superficial what are the four main layers of the epidermis?"

"Basal layer, spiny layer, granular layer, and horny layer."

"The dermis is composed of two layers: the thinner superficial _____ layer and the thicker, deeper _____ layer."

papillary; reticular

"What is the function of sebum secreted by sebaceous glands?"

"It lubricates hair and skin, kills bacteria, and supplies Vitamin D."

"Which two major nutrients are required by neurons and red blood cells which cannot use fats for ATP?"

Glucose (from carbohydrates).

A diet deficient in carbohydrates can lead to _____ from the reliance on fat metabolism.

metabolic acidosis

A diet with excess protein can cause kidney damage due to the high _____ load.

nitrogen

Which two vitamins can be synthesized in the body?

Vitamin D (from sunlight activation) and Vitamin K (from gut microbe synthesis).

"The _____ metabolic state occurs during and shortly after eating when nutrients enter the bloodstream and glucose is the main fuel."

absorptive

"The _____ metabolic state occurs when the GI tract is empty and nutrients are supplied from body reserves."

postabsorptive

"High blood concentrations of glucose amino acids, and fatty acids decrease the hunger hormone _____ and activate the satiety hormone _____."

ghrelin; leptin

Studies support that Ashwagandha root extract reduces the stress hormone _____.

cortisol

What is the verdict on taking biotin supplements to improve hair and nails in healthy individuals?

False; there is no evidence of benefit unless a pre-existing deficiency is present.

"Dietary collagen peptides are digested and absorbed and the resulting tripeptides are preferentially used by what type of cells to improve skin hydration?"

Fibroblasts (collagen-producing cells).

Creatine supplementation helps sustain high-demand muscle output by facilitating the rapid regeneration of what energy molecule?

ATP (Adenosine triphosphate).

What must be true of an odorant molecule for it to be smelled?

It must be volatile and soluble in the nasal mucus layer.

"Olfactory neurons are unusual because they can _____ an adaptive response to wear and tear."

regenerate

The phenomenon where olfactory receptors become saturated and no new molecules can bind is called _____.

fatigue

Marine animals must combat water loss to a high-salt environment by retaining solutes like _____ to balance external salt concentrations.

urea

"To deal with low salt and high water influx freshwater animals excrete nitrogenous waste as _____, which is highly soluble but also highly toxic."

ammonia (NH3)

What is the functional unit of the kidney responsible for filtering blood and forming urine?

The nephron.

"The first step of urine formation _____, occurs in the renal corpuscle where fluid and solutes pass from the glomerulus into Bowman's capsule."

filtration

"The third step of urine formation _____, occurs in the loop of Henle where water and ions are efficiently recovered from the filtrate."

secretion

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) functions by increasing the insertion of what channels into the collecting duct wall to increase water reabsorption?

Aquaporins.

"The rare genetic disorder Urbach-Wiethe disease causes calcium deposits in the _____ which blocks the fear response.",

amygdala

"In the neural circuits of fear the amygdala receives sensory input and sends output to the _____ to initiate body responses.",

hypothalamus