Ch 1. Morality and Moral Decision Making

what is cultural relativism?

Beliefs/preferences not backed by reason or evidence --> linked to culture or religious beliefs

What are non-moral facts?

facts that are morally neutral - describe the world without making value judgements

what is subjectivism?

Moral judgements that are expressions of emotion. Based on personal preferences or feelings, not facts or beliefs. Ex: "I feel positively about helping others" pro/con feelings "abortion is wrong"

What is moral realism?

Moral facts that exist independently of beliefs via rational discussion and evidence. Uses scientific/legal reasoning. True answers, not just based on feeling.

What is meta ethics?

the study of the nature of morality. Ex: what is the concept of morality in terms of true/false.

what are normative ethics?

the study of the moral rules that we apply. Ex: how we should behave, what makes actions right or wrong?

What are consequentialist theories?

(branch of normative ethics) defines rightness (right actions) by the good of their outcomes. Ex: utilitarianism

what are deontological theories?

(normative ethics branch) actions can be right or wrong regardless of the consequences. Ex: kant ethics

What is utilitarianism?

Morality depends on the outcome. Right actions will result in the maximization of happiness or well-being. (consequentialist)

What is hedonistic utilitarianism?

the right action is the one that increases pleasure and decreases pain.

-requires consideration of everyone's happiness, on all affected

-pleasures can be distinguished into higher (intellect, aesthetic) and lower (bodily) pleasures

what does it mean for something to be of intrinsic value?

Something that is valued for it's own sake (ex: happiness, love)

what does it mean for something to be of instrumental value?

something that it valued as a means to something else (ex: money)

What is non-maleficence?

To do no harm - supported by utilitarianism

What is beneficence?

To prevent harm and to promote well-being - supported by utilitarianism

What is Mill's harm principle?

States that interference to autonomy can be justified if actions harm others. This protects individual autonomy if one is competent to make their own choices. (paternalism)

What is paternalism?

Interfering with someone's autonomy for their own good

What are 3 objections to utilitarianism?

1. violates individual rights

-could justify immoral actions if it will max. happiness (ex: slavery)

2. excessive demands + impartiality

-cause sacrifice personal relationships in favour of comfort to strangers

3. Ignores past commitments

-breaking contracts/agreements in order to max. happiness

why is Immanual Kant important to ethics?

Has moral theory that shapes modern human rights, constitutional democracies, biomedical ethics

What does kantism value?

That morality is based on duty, not consequences. Values moral motives. Doing the right thing because it is right, not because of the outcome. Acting out of respect for others, not for personal gain.

What is a hypothetical imperative?

"if you want X, then do Y" ex: to lose weight, eat less

What are the two formulations of the categorical imperative?

1. The formula of universal law 2. Formula of humanity

What is the formula of universal law?

(categorical imperative) states that actions should be based on a principle that could always be applied to everyone. favours consistency, logic, fairness.

What is the formula of humanity?

(categorical imperative) states that you should not treat people as tools or as a means to something else. You must respect autonomy of others to make their own choices.

How is kantism important to biomedical ethics?

It emphasizes consent. Patients must be informed, and must consent to treatment/removal of treatment. Patients who cannot speak for themselves: decisions should be made that reflect what a reasonable person in their situation would want

what are virtue ethics?

A focus on being a good person, not rule following/consequences. The belief that morality means developing good character traits. "what would a good person do?"

What are intellectual virtues?

evidence based inquiry, use of evaluating evidence. Traits like wisdom, fairness, open-mindedness

What are moral/character values?

training emotions and habits that support right actions so we can do the right thing with the correct motive. Trait like courage, patience, compassion

What is the golden mean as it pertains to virtue ethics?

virtues that lie between 2 extremes (too little/too much of a feeling). Too little fear = reckless. Too much fear = cowardly -the right balance helps us to develop a stable moral character.

What are care ethics?

morality that is focused on caring and relationships, not rules or consequences. The core principles: 1. minimizing, avoiding harm 2. to create, maintain, protect positive relations

What are the 4 principles of biomedical ethics?

1. Non-maleficence - to do no harm 2. Beneficence 3. Autonomy 4. Justice

2. Beneficence - to do good + prevent harm

3. Autonomy - respect patient preferences

4. Justice -be fair, treat similar cases alike

What are prima facie duties?

Duties that should be followed unless strong reason not to. For example, not following patient autonomy if doing so would harm others.

What is a moral problem?

When the biomedical principles conflict with each other (ex: autonomy vs beneficence). Or if the facts are unclear, or one is unsure of how a principle applies in a situation

What is paternalism?

Inferring with someone's freedom/autonomy for their own good

What is weak paternalism?

Intervening only when someone is fully autonomous (ex: confused, unconscious). Prioritizes autonomy over beneficence.

What is strong paternalism?

Intervening even if the person is competent and autonomous. Allows beneficence to override autonomy.

what is applied ethics?

The study of applications of morality. Ex: should we have the death penalty

What are the 2 types of good?

Instrumental and intrinsic