APES Human Impact, Mining, Air Pollution, Waste

Clear cutting

A logging method where all trees are cut down in an area; most disruptive to ecosystems.

Selective cutting

Only some trees are cut, preserving biodiversity and reducing erosion.

Shelterwood cutting

Trees are removed in stages over time, allowing seedlings to grow under partial canopy.

Seed-tree cutting

Few mature trees are left to produce seeds for regrowth.

Surface mining

Removes surface layers of soil and rock to access minerals near the surface.

Subsurface mining

Digging tunnels underground to access deep mineral deposits.

Mountaintop removal mining

Blasting away entire mountaintops to reach coal seams; environmentally destructive.

Placer mining

Uses water to separate valuable minerals from sediment (e.g., gold panning).

In situ (on-site) mining

Extracting minerals by injecting fluids into the ground (e.g., fracking).

Primary air pollutants

Pollutants emitted directly into the air (e.g., CO, SO₂).

Secondary air pollutants

Formed by chemical reactions in the atmosphere (e.g., ozone, acid rain).

Six criteria air pollutants (EPA)

CO, SO₂, NO₂, PM (particulate matter), O₃ (ozone), Pb (lead).

Acid rain formed

SO₂ and NOx react with water vapor to form sulfuric and nitric acid that falls as precipitation.

POPs

Persistent Organic Pollutants; toxic chemicals that stay in the environment long-term.

PFOAs and PFAs

Man-made chemicals used in non-stick cookware; harmful and persistent.

PCBs

Industrial chemicals banned in 1979 due to toxicity and persistence.

BPA

A chemical in plastics that disrupts hormones; considered an endocrine disruptor.

DDT

A pesticide banned for harming wildlife; exposed by Rachel Carson in Silent Spring.

Stockholm Convention

An international treaty to phase out persistent organic pollutants.

Leachate

Toxic liquid that drains from landfills; collected using liners and gravel systems.

Top 3 categories of landfill waste

Paper, food waste, and plastic.

Methane formed in landfills

Anaerobic decay of organic matter; flammable and potent greenhouse gas.

Methane managed in landfills

Collected and burned off or used for energy.

Main greenhouse gases

CO₂, CH₄ (methane), N₂O, water vapor, CFCs.

Kyoto Protocol

1997 agreement with binding emission reduction targets for developed countries.

Paris Agreement

2015 global agreement with voluntary climate goals for all countries.

Montreal Protocol

International treaty to phase out CFCs and help the ozone layer recover.

Demographic transition Stage 4

High industrialization, low birth & death rates, good healthcare and education; population stable.

Demographic transition Stage 2

Improving healthcare, high fertility, declining mortality; population expanding rapidly.

Disease spread

Outbreak (local spike), endemic (regular in an area), pandemic (global).