Civil rights and Race relations in America 1865 - 2009

Franklin Roosevelt

elected 4 successive times and viewed as a great reforming president. He was also the first president to denounce lynchings as murder despite at no point introducing anti-lynching laws.

Fillibuster

deliberate use of extensive speech making to slow down or prevent a vote on a proposal

Harold Ickes

Secretary of the interior, progressive republican + member of NAACP

AAA

overproduction was a big problem so this agricultural agency paid farmers to decrease production of certain goods including corn and tobacco however land owners used this to evict black sharecroppers (a total of 800 000 between 1933-40) and white landowners rarely passed on the compensation

Alabama Sharecroppers Union

this group attempted to resist forced displacement from AAA reaching a membership of 8000. However white landowners used force against them and nothing was done to prevent it

TVA

this alphabet agency constructed dams to prevent flooding and generate electricity. Black workers were employed but they were restricted to unskilled labour, given segregated housing, and excluded from programmes.

CCC

This alphabet agency was created to make jobs for men aged 17-18 working on forest conservation projects. Eventually 200 000 black Americans were employed but nothing was done to increase black employment and they were restricted to low skilled jobs

PWA

This was headed by Harold Ickes and employed thousands to construct and improve infrastructure. $65 million was spent on black schools, homes and hospitals, black Americans occupied over 30% of housing constructed and black workers were given equal pay

FERA

this alphabet agency was established to provide poor relief. Many state authorities were reluctant to assist as they believed poverty was a result of idleness. Additionally it was both underfunded and understaffed so it could not provide enough support for families. In the South, It was made increasing difficult for black workers to get on the welfare roll and often they paid black families less money (in Georgia black payment 30% lower) however 1/3 of black Americans benefitted from it

CCC in the North

black recruits at Fort Dix went on strike soon after arriving due to scarcity of food and being forced to eat raw potatoes and leave barracks for white recruits. 6 ‘ringleaders’ were arrested and sent home but 35 refused to return and of that 34 were sent home. CCC reports state the local white population were nervous of the “possibility of rape” and company 235-c were sent away from white towns. Not the only example of nervous local population

Social Security act

Created aid programmes for unemployed, elderly, and families. However pensions ranged from $10 - $85 monthly, unemployment benefits were only $18 weekly and families received amounts depending on the generosity of the state (monthly in Massachusetts was $61 but in Mississippi was $8). Many black Americans were excluded from this due to being seasonal or temporary but it may not have been racially motivated as other countries had similar policies.

Executive order 8802

Created to prevent discrimination in defense industries however 2/3 of 8000 cases were dismissed often without adequate reason. There was a clear lack of intention to improve the economic situation of black Americans due to it lasting only the length of WW2

Eleanor Roosevelt

First lady. She had public interest in black affairs, attending black gatherings and had frequent meetings with prominent members of the black community. After a march on Washington was threatened she went to negotiate and reported that only an anti-discrimination ordinance would prevent it so Roosevelt signed executive order 8802. However she pressured him to support the anti lynching bills and the Sojourner Truth housing development in Detroit. She was blamed for the detroit riot

Marian Anderson

black Singer who was invited to sing at the white house but later the DAR refused to let her sing in front of an integrated audience. She was then invited to sing in front of 75 000 at the Lincoln memorial and Eleanor Roosevelt left the DARand explained why in a column published in 90 newspapers.

1929

Great Depression

1932

Democrats gain power and had all seats in the house of representatives

1933

Agricultural adjustment Agency

1933-40

200 000 black sharecroppers evicted due to AAA

1934

Alabama Sharecroppers union reaches 8000 members

1933

Tennessee Valley Authority

1933

Civilian Conservation Corps

1942

CCC disbanded

1933

Public Works Administration

1944

PWA disbanded

1933

Federal Emergency Relief Administration

1935

FERA disbanded

1935

Social Security Act

1937

Nolan Breedlove failed at getting the supreme court to outlaw poll tax

1941

Executive order 8802

1945

Executive Order 8802 ended

1936

Roosevelt addresses an all black audience for the first time, acknowledging the importance if the black vote

1934

NAACP support Costigan and Wagner anti lynching bill. Not passed due to lack of presidential support and Southern Democrat filibuster

1934

violent lynching of Claude Neal (anti-lynching bill proposed as a result)

1938

Eleanor Roosevelt attends the Southern Conference for Human Welfare in Birmingham Alabama where she sits with black delegated despite attempts to enforce segregation laws. The conference declared support for equality before the law, voting registration for the poor and funding for black students.

1936

Eleanor Roosevelt invites black singer Marian Anderson to sing at the white house

1939

Marian Anderson was refused to sing by daughters of the American Resistance

1940

Eleanor Roosevelt promotes national sharecroppers week and the national committee to abolish poll tax

1930

19 major trade unions excluded black membership. It was estimated black union membership was 50 000 out of 3.4 million, half of which from the brotherhood of sleeping car porters

1937

GAvagan anti lynching bill defeated in the senate

1935

Due to Eleanor Roosevelt’s influence, Mary Mcleod Bethune was made special advisor of minority affairs

1936

Mary McLeod Bethune becomes chairperson of informal ‘black cabinet’

NAACP

The National Association for the Advancements of Coloured Peoples. A civil rights group aiming to increase justice especially for those of African American descent. It had a strong presence in Harlem at the beginning of the 20th Century

CORE

Congress Of Racial Equality. Believed passive resistance would enact change. They organised war-time sit-ins in segregated Chicago restaurants and tested interstate transport laws in ‘Freedom Rides’ and were joined SNCC when attacked. Publicised racism and lawlessness but black divisions continued

Malcolm X

A radical activist. During his time in prison, he joined the NOI and became the second most popular speaker as well as being popular on TV and Radio. In 1964 X splits from NOI and Established OAAU. Assassinated in 1965 by NOI gunmen.

OAAU

The Organisation of Afro American Unity. Established by Malcolm X following his journey to Mecca. Held similar views but acceptive of white muslims. Had limited affect due to Malcolm’s assassination shortly afterwards

NOI

Nation of Islam. Established in Detroit in 1930. After Wallace Ford’s disappearance, Elijah Muhammad led the NOI and claimed to be a prophet of Allah. Appealed to northerners as it was more radical however the popularity was unknown. Potentially grew from 100 000 to 250 000 members between 1960-1969

Rosa Parks

She joined the NAACP in the 1950s and was chosen to test racial segregation on buses as a respectable citizen. After her arrest the NAACP organised a bus boycott

Brown V Board of Education

This was passed because the NAACP was persistent and effective, Harry Truman supported black equality, Supreme Court Justices between 1952-54 were generally more liberal, and Chief Justice Earl Warren persuaded conservative justices over 5 months that a unanimous decision was essential. It seemed to remove constitutional sanctions for racial segregation, overturned Plessy V Ferguson, desegregation was introduced quickly in the Urban and peripheral South and 70% of school districts in Washington DC and the border states desegregated in a year. However the NAACP had to obtain Brown II to desegregate with ‘all deliberate speed’ but no date was set for compliance.

Vietnam War

A major conflict with US involvement which took money and attention away from the Civil rights movement. MLK spoke out against the war and faced criticism because of it

Montgomery bus boycott

NAACP organised a bus boycott after Rosa Parks arrest with students and teachers as well as working with the church and MLK. This resulted in the Montgomery Federal court ruling racially segregated seating on buses violated the 14th amendment eventually being supported by the US supreme court

MIA

Montgomery Improvement Association. Organised transport for black workers during the montgomery bus boycott to ensure its success

Browder V Gale

The Montgomery Federal court ruling that stated racially segregated seating on buses violated the 14th Amendment. When this was appealed by the City of Montgomery, the Supreme Court upheld the decision

SCLC

The Southern Christian Leadership Conference. Wanted to involve white activists and wanted everyone to seek justice, use of nonviolent protest was encouraged and was headed by MLK and it was designed to focus on the South, very little was achieved, poor organisation with few salaried staff and little support, increased divisions.

1957 March on Washington

Attracted 20 000 participants and was one of the few SCLC achievements

SNCC

Student Non-violent Coordinating Committee.wanted rapid progress to equality and used peacful protests such as sit ins. Initially supported cooperation between black and White community however when radical Stokely Carmichael took over in 1966 he supported the exclusion of white Americans and the black power movement

Albany, Georgia

The SCLCs biggest failure. A peaceful protest was effectively handled by police non-violently. This drew limited media attention and very little change. Called off in 1962

March on Washington

Masterminded by Phillip Randolph to encourage the civil rights bill and promote black employment. around 25% of the 250 000 where white. MLK delivered a powerful speech referencing the bible and the declaration of independence. The only example of total civil rights group leader collaboration. extent of emotional effect on helping the passage of the civil rights bill is debated. Malcolm X argued that nothing changed.

Freedom Summer

the SNCCs biggest success. The organisation worked at community level to educate would-be voters and to combat problems faced by the black community in Mississippi. Northern volunteers poured into Mississippi to help. The nation took particular notice when three activists, one of which was black, were murdered by segregationists. SNCC helped to politicise many poor black Americans, particularly women, develop new grassroots leaders, and bring black Mississippi suffering to national attention.

Civil Rights act

JFK dedicated himself to ending segregation so upon his assassination, Johnson took advantage of sympathy, alongside overcoming a 57 day filibuster, to pass the act. It ended legal segregation in public and federal facilities and was a major triumph for bothe the civil rights movement and gender equality campaigners.

Voting Rights act

The violence seen in the Freedom Summer horrified Johnson and provided pressure for the act to be passed. It outlawed literacy tests and any other attempts to prevent eligible voters from voting.

Watts riot

Gained attention when black mobs set fire to several blocks of shops where 34 died, 1000 were injured, and 3500 were arrested. MLK was shocked by the devastation and redefined freedom from ending segregation to gaining economic equality.

Black Panthers

A radical civil rights group who were willing to use more violent tactics. they carried weaponry which made them a target for the police however they also helped set of medical care for poor black Americans

Meredith March

Black student James Meredith started on a 220 mile walk to encourage the black vote but he was shot and immobilised on the second day. Civil rights groups continued it with MLK and over 400 marchers joined. The NAACP wanted media attention and MLK invited white supporters however SNCC had become increasingly militant and rejected them. The NAACP no longer wanted to cooperate with SNCC or SCLC and Meredith felt excluded so started his own march

Chicago Campaign

700 000 of 3million in Chicago where black and suffered from unemployment, and housing and educational difficulties. The Northern cities were effectively shut off to MLK but he attempted anyway. Only 30 000 attended and was 38•C. The police shut off water used to cool off and arrested youths. 500 CORE member ignored MLK and were met with violence which encouraged police protection for marchers. MLK was invited to leave Chicago

‘Beyond Vietnam’ speech

Delivered by MLK, it called the Vietnam war uncivilised and wicked. He questioned how the US could spend millions to protect soldiers from communism really far away but couldn’t protect its own black citizens

Fair Housing Act

This act was passed the day after MLKs funeral following his assassination. It outlawed discrimination in the sale of housing and in jury selections.

disillusionment with non-violent tactics

Fuelled by a lack of progress in the North, many radical and militant figures of the movement including Malcolm X rejected integration and often the help of white Americans. For many, very little had changed and their peaceful methods had only been met with violence and destruction so they turned away from nonviolent tactics. There was also growing disillusionment with the Federal Government as their attention turned away from Johnson’s ‘Great Society’ and towards the Vietnam war

continued poverty

Lack of attainment in schools affected black employment. Their pay was often lower and one in three black teenagers were unemployed. In the 1960s a black male worker earned 55% of what a white American owned and 50% of young black Americans had a criminal record. Non violence had not provided them with education or employment

Differences in the North

Northern black Americans had more concern over the social and economic problems they faced rather than voting rights. They shared MLKs Christian faith much less and he was not familiar with northern issues so lacked a coherent strategy. Violence and rioting became the answer for many

Little Social and Economic reform

Many black Americans were trapped in ghettos. Johnson began his ‘great society’ reforms to try and combat this by increasing school funding, subsidising college scholarships, and introducing medical care for the elderly and to those that can’t afford it. These reforms were too little too late and attention was eventually focused on Vietnam

Education difference

Many technical roles required formal education which many black Americans did not receive. De facto segregated housing meant education was affected and caused students to be caught in a poverty cycle and being ill equipped for the job market.

White racism

White racism was seen in a lot of employment where black people were often rejected on the grounds of lack of experience or education. Major trades including paper, tobacco, and oil often used the ‘G-plan technique’ where many black applications were binned. Only 3% of building apprenticeships were held by black Americans and Ford only hired 74 workers out of 7665

black power movement

Nonviolent activities such as marches have people an outlet but in the North no non violent leader appeared. The outlet for northern black Americans was violence. As the civil rights movement began to breakdown, leaders like Floyd McKissick (CORE) were much more militant and many saw black power as the solution to their problems

1909

NAACP established

1942

CORE established

1952

Malcolm X joins NOI

1953

Rosa Parks joins NAACP

1954

Brown V Board of Education

1955

Brown II

1955

Start of Vietnam War

1955-56

Montgomery Bus Boycott

1956

Browder V Gale

1956

KKK revitalised

1957

Little Rock desegregated, SCLC established, MLK’s first march on Washington

1957

5 black churches and houses of prominent black figures were bombed.

1960

SNCC established

1961-62

SCLC Albany, Georgia

1963

SCLC Birmingham, Alabama

1963

March on Washington

1964

Freedom Summer, Civil rights act, OAAU established

1965

Voting Rights act, Watts riot

1966

black panthers established, Meredith march, MLK’s Chicago campaign

1967

‘Beyond Vietnam’ speech

1968

MLK assassinated, Fair Housing act, Black panthers form an alliance

Barbarous decision

Multiple cases brought to the supreme court, all of which argued the denial of black rights. of 9 justices, 8:1 rule that the civil rights act favours black Americans, the 14th Amendment isn’t anti-segregationist, and that all cases were individual and not significant. This essentially ended the civil rights act and begins ‘Separate but equal’

Segregation of railways

Florida was the first state to segregate the railways. Black people often had separate waiting rooms and if found in violation, would be fined $500

Black sugarcane workers strike in Louisiana

A labor strike where 10 000 workers protested poor working conditions and unfair wages in sugarcane plantations. 30 - 50 black Americans were killed

Poll tax

In Mississippi 67% of voters were black Americans, however the introduction of a $2 poll tax meant it dropped to 5.7% as poverty was rampant amongst black Americans

Literacy tests

Biased assessments which had multiple correct answers and could be twisted to suit the invigilator.

De facto segregation

Social darwinism was supposed scientific evidence of the inferiority of black people. New Orleans had segregated prostitution. A zoo was opened in Atlanta with segregated aisles