psyc 100 chapter 1 & 2

Chapter 1

Chapter 1

Roots of psychology

'psyche' = breath, spirit, soul

'logos' = study of

philosophy + physiology

Psychology definition

Scientific study of both behavior and mind

Scientific study

Knowledge is discovered through empirical observation

Behavior

Any kind of observable action, including words, gestures, responses, and biological activity

Mind

The contents of conscious experience, including sensations, perceptions, thoughts, and emotions

Clinical Psychologists

Focus: Diagnosis and
treatment of
psychological problems
Setting: Clinical &
academic

Applied Psychologists

Focus: Extending
psychological
principles to practical
problems in the world
Setting: Private
industry, schools, &
academic

Research Psychologists

Focus: Conduct research
to discover the basic
principles of behavior
and mind
Setting: Academic &
private industry

Dualism

Rene Descartes

Argued that mind and body are separate

Charles Darwin (1800s) & natural selection

The basic principle that traits which improve the likelihood of survival en route to reproduction are more likely to be passed down through generations

Wilhelm Wundt

“Father of modern Psychology”

Advocate for using scientific techniques to study the mind

Where and when?

1879 – University of Leipzig, Germany

What?

Studied immediate conscious experience

Structuralism

Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920)

Edward Titchener (1867-1927)

What?

Can study the structure of the mind by breaking it down into elementary parts - sensations and feelings

How?

Systematic introspection via self-reports

Example – “elements” of taste perception

Functionalism

William James (1842-1910)

James Rowland Angell (1869-1949)

What?

Interested in the purpose of a process rather than its components

Influenced by Darwin “What is the adaptive value of the mental process?”

Extended psychology into individual differences and applied uses

Mary Whiton Calkins

William James' student
First woman to have a research lab and be APA President (1905)
Psychology as the study of self
Self, or personality, is an adaptation to the environment

Behaviorism

John B. Watson (1878-1958)

B.F. Skinner (1904-1990)

What?

Reaction to introspection and the “unknowable” mind

Focused on only observable behavior

Helped discover principles of behavior change, reinforcement, and extinction

Dominated psychology, 1910s-1950s

Freud and Psychoanalysis

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)

A neurologist out of Vienna

What?

The first major movement in clinical psychology in modern history

Focused on the influence of the unconscious mind

Used psychoanalysis to help patients solve psychological problems through insight

Free association, dream analysis, exploration of unconscious mind, etc.

Humanism and Positive Psychology

Carl Rogers (1902-1987)

Abraham Maslow (1908-1970)

Martin Seligman (1942-present; positive psychology)

What?

A reaction to Freud’s pessimistic view of human nature

Focused on positive aspects of the human condition and capacity for change

Rogers promoted client-centered therapy

The Cognitive Revolution

A shift away from behaviorism beginning in the 1950s

Renewed focus on mental states and internal processes - “knowing and perceiving”

Why?

Heavily influenced by the computer and other technology

Reprioritized mental events as explanation for complex cognition

Evolutionary Psychology

Focuses on how thoughts and behaviors are molded by the pressures of evolution
Examples:
- Mate selection
- Language development
- Avoidance of incest to diversify genetics
Some criticize that environment can account for these phenomena

Cultural Influence:

Lev Vygotsky

Highlighted the interaction between people, cultures, and the learning process
Learning comes from close interactions - especially parents
Noted the influence of society, culture, and context

Impact of Culture on Behavior

Different “cultures” can be based on:

Gender

Race/ethnicity

Nationality

Affinities (e.g., political party)

Example: Eastern vs. Western Traditions

Collectivist vs. individualistic communities

Intersectionality and Culture

Why is it important to consider culture?
How do all a person's identities overlap to change experiences?
Within a given culture, people will have different experiences
Each person can belong to multiple cultures at the same time
By focusing on one aspect of identity or culture, is another being ignored?
Need to be inclusive

“Dinner Party” Approach

Eclectic approach = selecting and
adopting information from many
different theories
● Basis of modern clinical practice

Gestalt Psychology

Who?
• Max Wertheimer (1880-1943)
What?
•Human perception is not just
about seeing what is actually
present in the world around
us. It is also heavily
influenced by our motivations
and expectations.
•Holism — the whole is greater
than the sum of its parts

Behavior in Psychology

Actions, thoughts, feelings, motives, social interactions
○ Discounts mental states
○ Rejects the study of consciousness, thoughts, and feelings
○ Only study observable behavior
○ Behavior is learned through classical conditioning and reinforcement

Chapter 2

Chapter 2

Scientific Method

A multistep technique that generates empirical knowledge — i.e., knowledge derived from systematic observations of the world.

Observe < Detect Regularities < Generate Hypothesis < Observe

Operational Definitions

the specific measurement of an observation
Examples:
Intelligence = score on an IQ test
Depressive Symptoms = score on a self-report questionnaire

Scientific Method… in a bit more detail

• RESEARCH question

• Literature review

• Form hypothesis

• Design a study

• Conduct study

• Analyze data

• Report results

The Role of Theory

• Theory: a model of interconnected ideas or concepts that explains what is observed and makes predictions about future events.

• Theories are based on empirical evidence

• A good theory produces a wide variety of testable hypothesis.

Hypothesis

• a specific, testable prediction narrower than the theory it is based on

• “If” “Then” statements

Types of Studies

• descriptive - observe behavior

• correlational - predict behavior (correlation does not equal causation)

• experimental- understand the cause of behavior

Variable

something in the world that can vary and that a researcher can manipulate(change), measure (evaluate), or both.

Descriptive Studies

Descriptive Research: research methods that involve observing behavior to describe that behavior objectively and systematically

1. Case Studies

2. Observational Studies

Case Studies

a descriptive research method that involves the intensive examination of an unusual person or organization.

Observational Studies

Participant observation: a type of descriptive study in which the researcher is involved in the situation

Naturalistic observation: a type of descriptive study in which the researcher is a passive observer, separated from the situation and making no attempt to change_ or alter ongoing behavior

Reactivity

the phenomenon that occurs when knowledge that one is being observed alters the behaviors being observed. Called the Hawthorne Effect.

Observer Bias

Systematic errors in observation that occur because of an observer’s observation.

• Observer bias can especially be a problem if cultural norms favor inhibiting or expressing certain behaviors.

Naturalistic Observation

A descriptive research technique that records naturally occurring behavior as opposed to behavior produced in the laboratory.

Self-Reported Method

Methods:

• survey

• self-report questionnaires (e.g., likert scales)
  interviews
  - Benefit: can gather data on many individuals
  - Appropriate sampling is important!

Psychological Tests

Designed to measure differences (between) among people
Examples:
aptitude
Personality
IQ
Mental health symptoms/diagnosis

Correlational Studies

A research method that examines how variables are naturally related without researcher manipulation or causal claims.

• Variables are not altered.

• Correlations allow researchers to make predictions.

• Causation cannot be determined.

Directional Problem

• a problem encountered in correlational studies

• relationship between two variables, but cannot determine which variable may have caused changes in the other variable

Zero correlation (value of 0)

a relationship between two variables in which one variable is not predictably related to the other

Positive correlation (value of 0 to +1)

a relationship between two variables in which they move in the same direction

Negative correlation (value of -1 to 0)

a relationship between two variables in which the two variables move in opposite directions

Examples of Directionality Problem

○ stress levels and sleep quality
○ exercise levels and happiness
○ social media use and symptoms of depression

Third variable problem

○ a problem that occurs when the researcher cannot directly manipulate variables
○ as a result, the researcher cannot be confident that another, unmeasured variable is not the actual cause of differences in the variables of interest

Ethical Reasons for Using Correlational Designs

Some research questions require correlational research designs for ethical reasons.

Examples:

● Smoking and Lung Cancer
● Child Abuse and Developmental Outcomes
● Poverty and Mental Health

Experiment

• A research method that tests causal hypothesis by manipulating and measuring variables

• An experiment also allows researchers to test multiple hypothesis to examine and refine their theory.

Independent Variable

the variable that gets manipulated in a research study

Dependent Variable

the variable that gets measured in a research study

Operational Definition

a definition that:
qualifies (describes)
AND
quantifies (measures) a variable so the variable can be understood objectively

Experimental group

the participants in an experiment who receive the treatment

Control group

the participants in an experiment who receive no intervention or who receive an intervention that is unrelated to the independent variable being investigated

confounding Variable

anything that affects a dependent variable and that may unintentionally vary between the experimental conditions of a study

Random Assignment

A technique ensuring that each participant in an experiment has an equal chance of being assigned to any of the conditions in the experiment.

Sampling & Random Assignment

In an Experiment, Participants Need to Be Carefully Selected and Randomly Assigned to Conditions

• An important issue for any research method is how to select participants for the study.

Selection Bias

in an experiment, unintended differences between the participants in different groups; it could be caused by nonrandom assignment to groups

Construct Validity

The extent to which variables measure what they are supposed to measure

External Validity

The degree to which the findings of a study can be generalized to other people, settings, or situations

what degree is Internal Validity?

the degree to which the effects observed in an experiment are due to the independent variable and not confounds

Variability

in a set of numbers, how widely dispersed the values are from each other and from the mean

Standard Deviation (SD)

a statistical measure of how far
away each value is, on average, from the mean
● Large SD = the data is quite spread out away from the mean
● Small SD = the data is concentrated near the mean

Institutional Review Boards (IRBs)

Groups that review research proposals to protect participants’ rights and dignity.

Informed Consent

Participants must be informed about the study and what it involves.

• Minors and mentally incapacitated individuals cannot give consent.

• If deception is used, researchers must debrief participants afterward.

Confidentiality

Personal, identifying information about participants absolutely cannot be shared with others.

Anonymity

The researchers do not collect personal, identifying information.

Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC)

reviews research protocols, evaluating animal facilities, and ensuring the humane
care and use of animals

Validity

The extent to which a study measures what it intends to measure.

External Validity

How well findings generalize to other people, settings, or situations.

Internal Validity

How confidently results can be attributed to the independent variable rather than other factors.