Psychology
Insight Learning
Wolfgang Köhler
Abstract learning
Latent Learning
Observational Learning
Cognitive Learning
The Contingency Model of Classical Conditioning
Contiguity
Robert Rescorla
contingency model
contiguity model
Biology and Operant Conditioning
instinctive drift
fixed-ratio
fixed-interval
Reinforcement Schedules
partial-reinforcement effect
Punishment Versus Reinforcement
chaining
Extinction
Spontaneous recovery
Generalization
Primary reinforcers
Secondary reinforcers
B. F. Skinner
instrumental learning
Edward Thorndike
Operant Conditioning
Salient stimuli
Taste aversions
Learned taste aversions
Biology and Classical Conditioning
Aversive conditioning
Backward conditioning
Simultaneous conditioning
Trace conditioning
Ivan Pavlov
Classical Conditioning
unconditioned stimulus
conditioned response
conditioned stimulus
University/Undergrad
Ivan Pavlov
inadvertently discovered a kind of learning while studying digestion in dogs.
Classical Conditioning
People and animals can learn to associate neutral stimuli (e.g., sounds) with stimuli that produce reflexive, involuntary responses (e.g., food) and will learn to respond similarly to the new stimulus as they did to the old one (e.g., salivate).
unconditioned stimulus
The original stimulus that elicits a response is known as the __ (US or UCS).
unconditioned response
Food elicits the natural, involuntary response of salivation.
conditioned response (CR)
it is no longer a neutral stimulus but rather a conditioned stimulus (CS).
acquisition
Learning has taken place once the animals respond to the CS without a presentation of the US.
Trace conditioning
The presentation of the CS, followed by a short break, followed by the presentation of the US.
Simultaneous conditioning
CS and US are presented at the same time.
Backward conditioning
US is presented first and is followed by the CS.
extinction
In psychological terminology, the process of unlearning a behavior is known as
spontaneous recovery
One fascinating and yet-to-be-adequately-explained part of this process is known as
Aversive conditioning
has been used in a number of more socially constructive ways.
second-order or higher-order conditioning
Once a CS elicits a CR, it is possible, briefly, to use that CS as a US in order to condition a response to a new stimulus.
Learned taste aversions
are interesting because they can result in powerful avoidance responses on the basis of a single pairing.
Taste aversions
most commonly occur with strong and unusual tastes.
Salient stimuli
are easily noticeable and therefore create a more powerful conditioned response.
Operant conditioning
is a kind of learning based on the association of consequences with one’s behaviors.
Edward Thorndike
was one of the first people to research this kind of learning.
instrumental learning
to describe his work because he believed the consequence was instrumental in shaping future behaviors.
B. F. Skinner
who coined the term operant conditioning, is the best-known psychologist to research this form of learning.
Reinforcement
is defined by its consequences; anything that makes a behavior more likely to occur is a reinforcer.
Positive reinforcement
refers to the addition of something pleasant.
Negative reinforcement
refers to the removal of something unpleasant.
Punishment
is anything that makes a behavior less likely.
positive punishment
(usually referred to simply as “punishment”), which is the addition of something unpleasant
negative punishment
the removal of something pleasant.
Punishment
is operant conditioning’s version of aversive conditioning.
Chaining
Animals can also be taught to perform a number of responses successively in order to get a reward.
Extinction
occurs when the rat ceases to press the lever because the reward no longer results from this action.
Spontaneous recovery
after having extinguished the bar press response and without providing any further training, the rat began to press the bar again.
Generalization
would be if the rat began to press other things in the Skinner box or the bar in other boxes.
Discrimination
would involve teaching the rat to press only a particular bar or to press the bar only under certain conditions.
Primary reinforcers
innately satisfying stimuli.
Secondary reinforcers
are things we have learned to value such as praise or the chance to play a video game.
token economy
every time people perform a desired behavior, they are given a token.
Premack principle
It explains that whichever of two activities is preferred can be used to reinforce the activity that is not preferred.
reinforcement
When you are first teaching a new behavior, rewarding the behavior each time is best.
partial-reinforcement effect
behaviors will be more resistant to extinction if the animal has not been reinforced continuously.
fixed-ratio
(FR) schedule provides reinforcement after a set number of responses.
fixed-interval
schedule requires that a certain amount of time elapse before a bar press will result in a reward.
instinctive drift
The tendency for animals to forgo rewards to pursue their typical patterns of behavior is called
contiguity model
it postulates that the more times two things are paired, the greater the learning that will take place.
Contiguity
(togetherness) determines the strength of the response.
Robert Rescorla
revised the Pavlovian model to take into account a more complex set of circumstances.
Observational Learning
is also known as modeling and was studied a great deal by Albert Bandura in formulating his social-learning theory.
Latent learning
was studied extensively by Edward Tolman.
Latent
means hidden, and latent learning is learning that becomes obvious only once a reinforcement is given for demonstrating it.
Abstract learning
involves understanding concepts such as “tree” or “same” rather than learning simply to press a bar or peck a disk in order to secure a reward.
Wolfgang Köhler
is well known for his studies of insight learning in chimpanzees.
Insight learning
occurs when one suddenly realizes how to solve a problem.