AP Psychology - Unit 2 Summary: Cognition

Flashcards covering key vocabulary and concepts from the AP Psychology Unit 2 video lecture on Cognition by Mr. Sin.

Perception

The process of interpreting the information obtained through our five senses.

Sensation

Raw data or information that we receive from our sensory receptors.

Top-Down Processing

Using prior knowledge and experiences to interpret information.

Proofreader Illusion

Overlooking spelling or grammar mistakes due to familiarity with the content.

Bottom-Up Processing

Building perception from the ground up, organizing and interpreting information without relying on prior knowledge.

Schema

A mental framework built from past experiences that guides perception and helps interpret and organize our environment.

Perceptual Set

A mental shortcut the brain uses to quickly interpret experiences, influencing how we interpret a stimulus in a specific moment based on expectations or emotions.

Selective Attention

Focusing on a particular stimulus while tuning out others in the environment.

Cocktail Party Effect

The ability to focus on a specific conversation or sound in a noisy setting.

Inattentional Blindness

The failure to notice stimuli in our visual field due to our attention being focused elsewhere.

Change Blindness

Failing to notice changes in the environment; a type of inattentional blindness.

Apparent Movement

Perceiving motion even though nothing is actually moving, created by specific visual cues and contexts.

Stroboscopic Motion

The illusion of movement created by showing a series of images in rapid succession.

Phi Phenomenon

When lights blink on and off in a sequence, resulting in us perceiving objects as moving even though objects are stationary.

Induced Movement

When a stationary object appears to move because of the motion of surrounding objects.

Autokinetic Effect

When a stationary point of light in a dark environment appears to move because the eyes and brain have difficulty maintaining stable perception of the light's position.

Gestalt Psychology

A school of thought that focuses on how humans naturally group elements together to form meaningful patterns, interpreting stimuli as a unified whole rather than individual components.

Figure and Ground

The Gestalt principle that describes how our visual system separates what we see into two categories: the figure (object of focus) and the ground (background).

Continuation

The Gestalt principle addressing why our eyes naturally follow continuous lines or paths.

Closure

The Gestalt principle explaining how our brain subconsciously fills in missing information when viewing a familiar but incomplete object.

Similarity

The Gestalt principle referring to how we perceive a group of similar objects or patterns as one cohesive unit.

Proximity

The Gestalt principle that states that when objects are placed close to each other, they are often perceived as one single group.

Symmetry

The Gestalt principle explaining that objects that are symmetrical to each other are perceived as one rather than individual separate elements.

Depth Perception

The ability to perceive the relative distance of an object in one's visual field.

Binocular Cues

Cues that rely on both eyes working together to judge depth and spatial relationships.

Convergence

The process where our eyes move inward when we look at something close to us, and straighten out when we focus on something farther away.

Retinal Disparity

The difference between the two images our eyes see, which creates a sense of depth.

Monocular Cues

Cues that only require one eye and help us perceive depth on flat or two-dimensional surfaces.

Relative Size

A monocular cue that allows us to determine how close an object is to us; closer objects appear larger, while farther objects appear smaller.

Interposition

A monocular cue that occurs when one object blocks another; the object being blocked is perceived as farther away.

Relative Height

A monocular cue that tells us that objects higher in our visual field appear farther away.

Shading and Contour

Monocular cues that help us perceive the shape and form of an object; hazy and less detailed parts appear farther away.

Texture and Gradient

Monocular cues where objects that are clear in focus and full of detail appear closer than objects that lack details and appear more blurry.

Linear Perspective

A monocular cue where parallel lines seem to converge in the distance, giving us a sense of depth and positioning.

Motion Parallax

A monocular cue where objects closer to you appear to move quickly, while those that are farther away seem to move more slowly.

Perceptual Constancy

The ability to perceive objects as having consistent shape, size, color, and lightness even when their appearance changes due to varying conditions.

Size Constancy

Our brain's tendency to perceive objects as the same size, even when their distance varies.

Color Constancy

When we perceive the color of an object to remain constant even if the lighting changes.

Shape Constancy

A tendency of the brain to perceive an object's shape as the same even when it moves or is viewed from different angles.

Lightness Constancy

Our ability to perceive the blackness, whiteness, and grayness of an object as constant even under different lighting conditions.

Cognition

All forms of knowing and awareness, such as perceiving, conceiving, remembering, reasoning, judging, imagining, and problem-solving.

Concepts

Mental categories that help us organize and understand the world.

Prototype

The most typical or basic example of a concept; serves as a mental image that illustrates the concept.

Schemas

More complex mental frameworks that organize and interpret information about the world, built from past experiences and knowledge.

Assimilation

Fitting new information into existing schemas without altering them.

Accommodation

Changing a schema to incorporate new information.

Executive Functions

Cognitive processes that help individuals generate, organize, plan, and carry out goal-directed behaviors, as well as engage in critical thinking.

Algorithms

A step-by-step systematic approach to solving a problem.

Heuristics

Mental shortcuts based on past experiences used to solve problems quickly, but don't always guarantee accuracy.

Representative Heuristics

Involves making judgments based on how much something resembles or is a representation of a typical case or stereotype.

Availability Heuristics

Involves making judgments based on how easily examples come to mind.

Mental Set

A cognitive framework that relies on past experiences and successful strategies to solve new problems.

Priming

The phenomenon where exposure to one stimulus influences how we respond to a later stimulus.

Repetition Priming

Occurring when exposure to a specific stimulus makes it easier to recognize that same or similar stimulus later.

Semantic Priming

Involving the influence of one word on the interpretation of another related word.

Framing

How information is presented, which can shape how we interpret and react to it, often influencing our decisions and judgments.

Divergent Thinking

Exploring many possible solutions, expanding the range of options for solving a problem.

Convergent Thinking

Narrowing down the possibilities to identify the single best solution.

Functional Fixedness

Limits a person to using an object only in its traditional way.

Gambler's Fallacy

The mistaken belief that if an event occurs more frequently than normal during a given period, it'll happen less frequently in the future, or vice versa.

Sunk Cost Fallacy

The tendency to continue to pursue an action in which you've already invested money, time, or resources into, regardless of its future value.

Memory

Information that persists over time, acquired through various experiences, and can be stored and retrieved later.

Metacognition

The awareness of your own cognitive processes.

Explicit Memory

Involves information that we consciously recall, requiring effort and thought; includes episodic and semantic memory.

Episodic Memory

Relates to personal experiences or events.

Semantic Memory

Involves knowledge, facts, and general information.

Implicit Memory

Consists of information or skills we learn without being fully aware of it; includes procedural memory.

Procedural Memory

Helps us recall how to perform tasks such as motor skills and routines.

Prospective Memory

Involves remembering to perform future actions.

Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)

Strengthens the synaptic connections between neurons in the brain through repeated activation, enhancing our ability to store and retain knowledge and skills over time.

Working Memory

Another term for short-term memory, explaining how our primary memory system processes and temporarily holds information for different cognitive tasks.

Visual-Spatial Sketchpad

Often called the inner eye; handles visual and spatial information, allowing us to visualize objects and their locations.

Phonological Loop

Deals with verbal and auditory information.

Phonological Store

Also known as the inner ear, holds spoken words and sounds for a short period of time.

Articulatory Rehearsal Process

Also known as the inner voice, helps you repeat and rehearse verbal information to keep it active in your working memory.

Central Executive

Acts as the control center of working memory, managing and coordinating the other components, focusing attention, prioritizing tasks, and integrating information.

Episodic Buffer

Integrates with working memory and combines different types of information, such as sounds and visuals.

Multi-Store Model of Memory

Explains how information is processed, stored, and retrieved, focusing on three key systems: sensory, short-term, and long-term memory.

Sensory Memory

Consists of iconic memory (visual) and echoic memory (auditory), capturing sensory information briefly.

Iconic Memory

Visual sensory memory that lasts for a fraction of a second.

Echoic Memory

Auditory sensory memory that lasts anywhere between 1 to 4 seconds.

Automatic Processing

Information is gathered with little or no conscious effort.

Working Memory (Short-Term Memory)

A limited-capacity memory system that holds information temporarily.

Maintenance Rehearsal

Repeatedly going over the information to prevent forgetting.

Elaborative Rehearsal

Connecting new information to something you already know, making it easier to remember.

Encoding

The process of moving information from working memory to long-term memory.

Levels of Processing Model

Memories are encoded on three levels: structural, phonemic, and semantic.

Structural Processing

The most superficial level of processing; focuses on the physical appearance or structure of the information.

Phonemic Processing

A deeper level of processing; focuses on how the information sounds.

Semantic Processing

The deepest level of processing; focuses on the meaning of the information.

Visual Encoding

Encoding information by the visual elements we observe, such as noticing specific fonts or colors.

Acoustic Encoding

Encoding information using different sound elements, such as using rhymes.

Tactile Encoding

Encoding information using the feeling of touch, such as remembering the feel of certain textures.

Organizational Encoding

Processing information in terms of a specific sequence, such as lists or groups.

Elaborative Encoding

Pairing new information with prior knowledge.

Semantic Encoding

Focusing on the meaning or context of the information; a highly effective encoding method.

Mnemonic Devices

Techniques that help people remember information more easily by organizing it in a way that's easier to recall.

Method of Loci

A mnemonic device that helps you remember information by associating it with specific locations in a familiar setting.

Chunking

Organizing information into meaningful chunks, categories, or hierarchies.

Distributed Practice

Spacing out studying sessions to maximize the encoding process.